Changes In Sulfide Concentrations Research Articles

Fate of intracellular H2S/HS− and metallo-proteins

Kenneth Olson has recently developed a theoretical model to predict how endogenously-generated intracellular molecules of H2S would diffuse within and outside the cells (Olson, 2013). Clarifying this question is of major interest since intracellular H2S, which is mostly present under the form of its sulfhydric anion HS−, has been hypothesized to be an important actor involved in the transduction of the response to hypoxia (Olson, 2011a). One of the major implications of Olson’s model, which suggests little, if any, diffusion outside the cytoplasm of endogenously-generated H2S, is that studies supporting a physiological role for this gas, based on its determination in the extracellular milieu -blood for in-vivo experiments or “bath” for tissular or cellular preparations- should be considered with a high degree of skepticism. This notion corroborates results from previous studies (Furne et al., 2008; Whitfield et al., 2008) wherein major methodological pitfalls preventing accurate determination of H2S/HS− in the extracellular milieu were identified, accounting for the unrealistic high (microM) baseline levels of sulfide in the blood and in tissues reported in the literature. Although attempts are being made to measure/visualize intracellular H2S/HS− (Lin et al., 2013), theoretical models, such as the one proposed by Olson (Olson, 2013), represent an essential step in the development of a rational frame of reference aimed at predicting the fate of endogenous – or exogenous- H2S. Prediction of the changes in sulfide concentrations remains difficult: the amount, the rate, the site as well as the mechanisms of regulation of the “production” of H2S are far from being established or understood, while the “oxidative” properties of the mitochondria for this gas varies from tissue to tissue and possibly from cell to cell. H2S is also a very reactive molecule. In the reducing milieu of the cytoplasm, sulfhydration of cysteine residues (Mustafa et al., 2009) may be limited, but the interactions of H2S with metallo-proteins are certainly quantitatively significant and pertinent to include into any prediction model. It is H2S reactivity with metal compounds, i.e. ferric iron (methemoglobin) (Haouzi et al., 2011a; Smith and Gosselin, 1966; Van de Louw and Haouzi, 2012) or oxidized cobalt (hydroxocobalamin) (Smith, 1969; Truong et al., 2007; Van de Louw and Haouzi, 2012), which has been offered as a rationale for developing antidotes against H2S poisoning. Similarly, Zn compounds have been used to decrease H2S in the colon (Suarez et al., 1998). Intra-cytoplasmic and intra-mitochondrial metallo-proteins are as abundant (Dupont et al., 2006) as they are diverse (Karlin, 1993); actually, a large proportion of the pool of proteins present in a cell does contain metal compounds including Fe, Zn, Cu or Co at various levels of oxidation (Waldron et al., 2009). These molecules constitute a large sink in the mitochondria and the cytoplasm for the nM or pM concentrations of H2S produced in a cell. As a result, prediction of the kinetics or the changes in the amplitude of intracellular soluble H2S may prove to be quite challenging. In addition to this “trapping effect”, enhanced, reduced or even novel functions of metallo-proteins may emerge from the presence of metallo-sulfide. The long list of intracellular metallo-proteins potentially involved in the systemic response to hypoxia includes molecules ranging from myoglobin to some of the most fundamental components of the electron chain, from superoxide dismutase (Searcy et al., 1995) to carbonic anhydrase, and from angiotensin-converting enzyme (Laggner et al., 2007) to various heme proteins. It is, after all, through the combination of H2S/HS− with the cytochrome C oxidase that the dreadful toxicity of H2S seems to operate (Dorman et al., 2002). Incorporating all relevant factors potentially interacting with H2S in a cell is a real challenge, but the development of theoretical models providing realistic anticipation of the fate of H2S must be pursued to clarify the physiological effects of endogenous sulfide -if any- and, as cautioned by Olson, to separate hype from hope (Olson, 2011b).

Sulfide fluxes in a microbial mat from the Ebro Delta, Spain.

The sulfur cycle of Ebro Delta microbial mats was studied in order to determine sulfide production and sulfide consumption. Vertical distribution of two major functional groups involved in the sulfur cycle, anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria and dissimilatory sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB), was also studied. The former reached up to 2.2x10(8) cfu cm(-3) sediment in the purple layer, and the latter reached about 1.8x10(5) SRB cm(-3) sediment in the black layer. From the changes in sulfide concentrations under light-dark cycles it can be inferred that the rate of H(2)S production was 6.2 micro mol H(2)S cm(-3) day(-1) at 2.6 mm, and 7.6 micro mol H(2)S cm(-3) day(-1) at 6 mm. Furthermore, sulfide consumption was also assessed, determining rates of 0.04, 0.13 and 0.005 mmol l(-1) of sulfide oxidized at depths of 2.6, 3 and 6 mm, respectively.

Sulfide Concentrations in Postmortem Mammalian Tissues

Postmortem changes in sulfide concentrations in body tissues were examined in autopsied rats exposed to hydrogen sulfide concentrations of 550 to 650 ppm, and in nonexposed rats and humans. Analyses were made by gas chromatography, following an extractive alkylation. Sulfide concentrations in the blood, liver, and kidneys of rats increased in both the exposed and nonexposed groups, depending on the lapse of time after death. On the other hand, the lung, brain, and muscle showed little or no change in sulfide concentration with elapse of time after death. The data obtained from human tissues were almost the same as those for rats, except data for blood, in which no or little increase of sulfide was observed.