CH4 Emissions Research Articles

Assessing modelled methane emissions over northern wetlands by the JULES-HIMMELI model.

Assessing modelled methane emissions over northern wetlands by the JULES-HIMMELI model.

Tidal and seasonal effects on sediment methane emissions from three different mangrove species.

Tidal and seasonal effects on sediment methane emissions from three different mangrove species.

Hydrogen peroxide-aged biochar mitigating greenhouse gas emissions during co-composting of swine manure with rice bran.

Hydrogen peroxide-aged biochar mitigating greenhouse gas emissions during co-composting of swine manure with rice bran.

The mitigation efficacy and mechanism for H2S and CH4 emission from wastewater by adding bacterium-fungus mixture

The mitigation efficacy and mechanism for H2S and CH4 emission from wastewater by adding bacterium-fungus mixture

Fertilizer management modifies soil CO2, N2O, and CH4 emissions in a Chernozem soil

Fertilizer management modifies soil CO2, N2O, and CH4 emissions in a Chernozem soil

Depth-dependent response of soil microbial community and greenhouse gas efflux to polylactic acid microplastics and tidal cycles in a mangrove ecosystem.

Depth-dependent response of soil microbial community and greenhouse gas efflux to polylactic acid microplastics and tidal cycles in a mangrove ecosystem.

Estimating the influence of dietary composition and management on nutrient intake and excretion and methane emission in different pig categories.

The study aimed to estimate the effect of diet composition, pig production stage, in-housing conditions, and manure management on methane (CH4) emissions from enteric fermentation, manure stored in the barn, and the outdoor storage tank. For each pig category, an estimation for emissions was made for a standard Danish pig diet based on wheat, barley, and soybean meal. Within each category of pigs, emissions were also estimated for diets with different levels and types of dietary fiber from sugar beet pulp, wheat bran, oats, wheat, or soy hulls, which were included as a partial substitution for wheat or barley. In all diets within four pig categories, feed intake, excreted dry matter, feces mass, and urine volume (g/d per animal) increased in sugar beet pulp, wheat bran, oat, or soy hull diets compared to the average Danish diet. In grower-finisher pigs, the sum of CH4 emissions from enteric fermentation, manure stored in the barn, and the outdoor storage tank were 9.8, 10.2, 11.0, 11.0, and 11.2 (kg/year/animal place) for wheat diet, average Danish diet, oat diet, wheat bran diet, and sugar beet pulp diet, respectively, while in gestating sows, were 16.9, 17.5, 18.4, 19.6, 19.7, and 23.2 (kg/year/animal place) in wheat diet, average Danish diet, oat diet, sugar beet pulp diet, wheat bran diet, and soy hull diet, respectively. Contribution of CH4 emissions from manure stored in the barn plus outdoor storage tank for the average Danish diet accounted for 95, 90, 83, and 84% of total CH4 emissions in weaned pigs, grower-finisher pigs, lactating sows, and gestating sows, respectively. In conclusion, feed composition has a considerable impact on CH4 emissions. Enteric CH4 and CH4 emissions from manure stored in the barn and in the outdoor storage tank were increased by elevated concentration of residual fiber in all four pig categories except for enteric CH4 in weaned pigs.

Black and White Fire Ash Alters Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Temporarily Reverses Carbon Source-Sink Status in Aquatic Mesocosms.

Wildfire ash is transported in large quantities to receiving water bodies, where it may exert strong chemical controls on ecosystem function. To assess the role of fire ash in altering CO2 and CH4 fluxes in aquatic sediments, we designed three mesocosm experiments that compared the changing fluxes of these gases and water quality parameters under different loads and types of ash. Black ash (char) caused substantial drops in pH and increased CO2 and CH4 emissions through abiotic and biotic mechanisms, while white ash dramatically increased pH and enhanced CH4 emissions, possibly due to inhibition of methanotrophy. White ash-driven increases in pH also instigated CO2 uptake. If this abiotically driven CO2 uptake could interact with ash-driven nutrient fertilization to synergistically enhance biotic CO2 uptake in surface waters after a fire, these initial increases in pH may represent an important priming effect. Our findings suggest that strong ash flows following fires may trigger substantial pulses of heterotrophic or abiotically driven greenhouse gas emissions or uptake in recipient lentic aquatic ecosystems, which─although they may be overshadowed by autotrophic responses─may nonetheless be central to altered lake or wetland carbon balance following a fire.

Greenhouse gas fluxes in an oxbow lake and its exposed sediments during periods of hydraulic connection and disconnection

After decades of systematic simplification of river ecosystems through hydraulic interventions that have reduced the interactions between the river and its floodplain, projects are now underway to reconnect rivers with riparian areas and lateral canals. The navigation groynes separating the Po River from the Gussola oxbow lake (Cremona, northern Italy) underwent a requalification intervention in March 2023, which consisted of lowering them in order to increase the frequency of flooding and, consequently, the interaction between the river and the oxbow lake. Before and after the requalification, the oxbow lake saturation and fluxes of CO2, CH4 and N2O were measured to analyse the effects of connectivity and rewetting on the sink or source role for greenhouse gases. Other parameters included temperature, conductivity, pH, dissolved oxygen, nutrients and chlorophyll. We hypothesised that the disconnection of the Gussola oxbow lake from the Po River would result in isolated, stagnant ponds prone to algal blooms, reducing CO2 concentrations and fluxes, and bottom hypoxia/anoxia, leading to anaerobic pathways in sediments and the accumulation and evasion of CH4 and N2O. We also hypothesized that evaporation would set to zero CH4 and N2O fluxes to the atmosphere through exposed sediments, but increase those of CO2 due to increased air and oxygen penetration. All greenhouse gas fluxes were carried out on a seasonal basis along 2023 and 2024, and intensified during hydrological extremes. Measurements were made in situ, using portable analysers connected to floating or benthic chambers when fluxes were the target, or to 1 L glass bottles half-filled with in situ water when saturations were the target. The results suggest that when the Gussola oxbow lake is isolated, it rapidly stratifies, the bottom water becomes anoxic and releases large amounts of CH4. Evaporation leads to fragmentation of the oxbow lake into ponds, where algal blooms can be replaced by macrophytes, if hydraulic disconnection persists. Macrophyte meadows, especially those with emergent plants, are CO2 sink hotspots. Floods set to zero primary producer communities, destratify the water column, restore oxic conditions and result in large nutrient and sediment input to the oxbow lake. Floods reduce CH4 saturation and evasion, but large nitrate inputs stimulate denitrification in the oxbow lake and N2O evasion. In exposed sediments, water saturation gradients regulate CO2 and N2O emissions (peaking in unsaturated sediments) and CH4 emissions (peaking in saturated sediments). In the case of sediments, N2O is likely to be released as a consequence of increased nitrification rates. The results of this study shed light on the multiple mechanisms regulating greenhouse gas dynamics, which are activated or deactivated during periods of flooding and hydraulic connectivity, and during period of low discharge and isolation of lateral canals as oxbow lakes.

Are natural mires warming or cooling Earth’s climate? - A perspective by the new ACME metric

Introduction Mire ecosystems, i.e. peat forming wetlands, have sequestered carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere for millenia accumulating its carbon (C) into thick peat deposits. This has created a negative perturbation to the atmospheric CO2 content with a consequent climate cooling effect. At the same time, the mires emit methane (CH4) into the atmosphere, which results in a climate warming effect as CH4 is a powerful greenhouse gas (GHG). Thus, the functioning of mire ecosystems involves GHG fluxes with opposing effects on Earth’s radiative balance (e.g. Frolking et al. (2006)). Commensuration of the radiative forcing (RF) of different GHGs is crucial for understanding the effects of land cover and ecosystem changes on the global climate. However, none of the current commensuration approaches, such as those based on the Global Warming Potential (GWP) or Sustained GWP values, are suitable for addressing the current climatic effect of natural mire ecosystems. Here, our aim has been to develop a practical method to correctly quantify the climatic effect of natural mire ecosystems as compared to a situation in which such a mire ecosystem would not exist. Materials and Methods The radiative forcing due to a perturbation to the atmospheric mixing ratio of a well-mixed GHG depends on the magnitude of the perturbation and the radiative efficiency of the GHG in question. The temporal dynamics of the atmospheric GHG content can be modelled by integrating an atmospheric impulse-response function (Enting 2003). For CH4 and nitrous oxide (N2O), we adopted first-order decay functions (Myhre et al. 2013). For CO2, the dynamics are more complex, and the processes acting in widely differing time scales were modelled by dividing the total CO2 mass into several compartments. One of these has a very long perturbation time scale, thus resulting in a permanent change in the atmospheric CO2 content, while in the others an atmospheric mass pulse decays with a characteristic, finite time scale (Joos et al. 2013). The radiative efficiencies were derived from the RF parameterization of Etminan et al. (2016). As discussed earlier by e.g. Frolking et al. (2006), and also shown by the calculations with impulse-response RF model, the current RF of a mire ecosystem depends mostly on its total C storage and its recent CH4 emission. Thus the RF can be quantified by multiplying these two input variables by the corresponding RF coefficients, with further refinement by addition of data on recent Carbon Accumulation Rate (CAR) and N2O emission. We propose a new metric for commensuration of the effects of Accumulated Carbon and Methane Emission (ACME) on Earth’s energy balance. This ACME approach is applicable to natural mires with a significant part of their carbon accumulated more than 1000 years ago. It provides an easy-to-use tool that requires few input data. Results and Discussion We demonstrate the feasibility of the ACME approach by applying it to a set of northern mires. The ACME-based RF estimates indicate that these mires have a cooling effect on the current climate, contrary to what a traditional GWP-based calculation suggests (Fig. 1). This exhibits a clear qualitative difference in the climatic effect of mire systems as suggested by these two approaches. The climatic effect as quantified by the ACME metric is dominated by the C accumulated into the mires over the millennia, which is ignored when using the GWPs and present-day fluxes. Furthermore, by applying the new metric with estimates of the global C storage and CH4 emission of mires north of 45°N, we can demonstrate their global cooling effect and estimate their current RF to range from –0.45 to –0.23 W m-2.

Insights into Enteric Methane Emissions in Conventional and Organic Dairy Grazing Systems in Island Regions

Pasture-based dairy systems are a cornerstone of agricultural practices in the Azores, contributing significantly to both the local economy and environmental sustainability. However, the environmental impact of these systems, particularly in terms of methane (CH4) emissions, remains a major challenge, especially given the need to balance productivity with ecological preservation. This study aimed to compare enteric methane emissions, floristic composition, productivity, and nutritional quality between conventional and organic pasture systems in the Azores. Data were collected from representative dairy farms over a 12-month period, with pasture samples analyzed monthly to assess floristic diversity, dry matter productivity, and nutritional quality (crude protein and digestibility). Methane emissions were estimated using the IPCC Tier 2 methodology, incorporating data on animal performance, diet composition, and energy intake to calculate CH4 emissions per cow per year. The results showed that organic pastures had greater floristic diversity (5.10 ± 0.25 species/m2) than conventional pastures (4.00 ± 0.23 species/m2). However, conventional systems exhibited higher dry matter productivity (22.85 g/m2 vs. 15.35 g/m2) and incorporated corn silage, which enhanced digestible energy and reduced methane emissions (81.33 kg CH4/cow/year) compared to organic systems (89.17 kg CH4/cow/year). Although organic pastures had higher crude protein content (20.65%), their lower digestibility contributed to higher methane emissions. This study underscores the trade-offs between environmental sustainability, pasture productivity, and methane mitigation in pasture-based dairy systems, highlighting the need for integrated management approaches that balance ecological and production goals.

Comparing greenhouse gas dynamics and soil conditions in a newly restored wetland and a long-established natural site

Wetland restoration often aims to re-establish native vegetation and improve ecosystem functions, including greenhouse gas (GHG) regulation and biodiversity support. This study compares a newly restored spruce plantation, where managed vegetation was recently removed to encourage the return of native species, with a control site restored over a decade earlier, where natural vegetation and ecosystem functions have achieved greater stability. The objective was to assess how restoration stages influence GHG fluxes and associated soil conditions. Over one year, methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) fluxes were measured bi-weekly using closed chambers with a LI-7810 trace gas analyzer (LICOR Biosciences). Sampling focused on five key zones: three sections within the newly restored site (one near a water channel (NS), an area adjacent to a closed ditch (NCD), and an area far from the ditch (FDC)), one partly dominated by old-native vegetation (Wood), and a mature, naturally vegetated control site (Control). GHG measurement results revealed significant variations among the sampling sites. The control site showed the lowest CH4 emissions, ranging from -3.62 to 0.47 nmol CH4 m⁻² s⁻¹, and Reco ranging from 0.05 to 3.93 µmol CO2 m⁻² s⁻¹. In contrast, the unrestored site with old vegetation and the newly restored site showed greater variability, with CH4 fluxes ranging from -0.68 to above 84.88 nmol CH4 m⁻² s⁻¹, while Reco ranged from 0.01 to above 28.49 µmol CO2 m⁻² s⁻¹. Additionally, soil parameters, including pore water electrical conductivity, temperature, moisture content, and soil carbon (C%) and nitrogen (N%) concentrations, were measured at each sampling site. The control site showed the highest soil nutrient levels (C% = 12.7, N% = 0.73), indicating greater organic matter accumulation. By contrast, the other sites showed lower and variable nutrient levels, with C% ranging from 3.7 to 10.5% and N% from 0.21 to 0.61%. Other measured parameters also varied significantly across the sampling sites. These findings highlight the significant impact of restoration stages on GHG dynamics and soil properties. The control site, with its mature vegetation, represents a stable ecosystem. Meanwhile, the newly restored areas are characterized by higher GHG emissions and variable soil parameters, likely driven by ongoing ecological transitions. This study provides valuable insights into the processes that guide ecosystem recovery by comparing an established ecosystem to a site in the early stages of restoration. The results can inform future restoration strategies to enhance wetland functionality, improve biodiversity, and support climate regulation.

How Long Until Agricultural Carbon Peaks in the Three Gorges Reservoir? Insights from 18 Districts and Counties

Under the global climate governance framework, the Paris Agreement and the China–U.S. Glasgow Joint Declaration established a non-negotiable target of limiting 21st-century temperature rise to 1.5 °C. To date, over 130 nations have pledged carbon neutrality by mid-century, with agricultural activities contributing 25% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The spatiotemporal dynamics of these emissions critically determine the operational efficacy of carbon peaking and neutrality strategies. While China’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) commit to achieving carbon peaking by 2030, a policy gap persists regarding differentiated implementation pathways at the county level. Addressing this challenge, this study selects the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGRA)—a region characterized by monocultural cropping systems and intensive fertilizer dependency—as a representative case. Guided by IPCC emission accounting protocols, we systematically evaluate spatiotemporal distribution patterns of agricultural CH4 and N2O emissions across 18 county-level units from 2006 to 2020. The investigation advances through two sequential phases: Mechanistic drivers analysis: employing the STIRPAT model, we quantify bidirectional effects (positive/negative) of critical determinants—including agricultural mechanization intensity and grain productivity—on CH4/N2O emission fluxes. Pathway scenario prediction: We construct three developmental scenarios (low-carbon transition, business-as-usual, and high-resource dependency) integrated with regional planning parameters. This framework enables the identification of optimal peaking chronologies for each county and proposes gradient peaking strategies through spatial zoning, thereby resolving fragmented carbon governance in agrarian counties. Methodologically, we establish a multi-scenario simulation architecture incorporating socioeconomic growth thresholds and agroecological constraints. The derived decision-support system provides empirically grounded solutions for aligning subnational climate actions with global mitigation targets.

Wetlands as Climate-Sensitive Hotspots: Evaluating Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Southern Chhattisgarh

In recent decades, wetlands have played a significant role in the global carbon cycle, making it essential to quantify their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions at regional, national, and international levels. This study examines three dammed water bodies (Dalpatsagar, Gangamunda, and Dudhawa lake–wetland complexes) in Chhattisgarh, India, to estimate their GHG emission potentials. Methane (CH4) showed the highest emission rate, peaking at 167.24 mg m−2 h−1 at 29.4 °C in Dalpatsagar during the standard meteorological week of 21–27 May. As temperatures rose from 17 °C to 18 °C, CH4 emissions ranged from 125–130 mg m−2 h−1. Despite slightly higher temperatures, Dudhawa showed lower emissions, likely due to its larger surface area and shallower depth. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from Gangamunda increased sharply from 124.25 to 144.84 mg m−2 h−1 as temperatures rose from 12 °C to 25 °C, while Dudhawa recorded a peak CO2 emission of 113.72 mg m−2 h−1 in April. Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions peaked at 29.11 mg m−2 h−1 during the 8th meteorological week, with an average of approximately 10.0 mg m−2 h−1. These findings indicate that climate-induced changes in water quality may increase health risks. This study offers critical insights to inform policies and conservation strategies aimed at mitigating emissions and enhancing the carbon sequestration potential of wetlands.

The Impact of Organic Fertilizer Substitution on Microbial Community Structure, Greenhouse Gas Emissions, and Enzyme Activity in Soils with Different Cultivation Durations

To address soil degradation risk caused by the long-term application of organic and nitrogen fertilizers in facility vegetable fields, this study selected soils with cumulative cultivation durations of 1, 3, 6, and 9 years to investigate the impact of organic and nitrogen fertilizer (OFN) application ratios on soil microbial community structure, greenhouse gas emissions, and enzyme activities. The results show that SOC content increases with soil cultivation duration and the proportion of organic fertilizer applied. Organic fertilizer stimulates urease and catalase activities; however, NH4+-N in the soil inhibits enzyme activities. Organic fertilizer increases the abundance of Proteobacteria and Bacteroidota, enhancing its potential carbon sequestration capacity and also resulting in higher CH4 and CO2 emissions. The microbial community structure is influenced by both fertilizer ratios and soil cultivation duration. As the taxonomic level becomes finer, the number of differential species at the phylum (3), class (3), order (6), family (8), and genus (8) levels increases. The highest Chao1 index in soils of 1, 3, 6, and 9 years was observed at 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75% organic fertilizer substitution ratios, respectively. The 25% organic fertilizer substitution ratio showed better microbial diversity and evenness in 3-, 6-, and 9-year-old soils.

An Unexpected Seasonal Cycle in U.S. Oil and Gas Methane Emissions.

Accurate quantification of methane (CH4) emissions is essential for understanding changes in its atmospheric abundance. Atmospheric observations can supply independent emission information that complements and strengthens inventory-based estimates. In this study, we quantified annual and monthly U.S. CH4 emissions in 2008-2021 using inverse modeling of ground and airborne measurements at sites across the U.S. with 10-12 km atmospheric transport simulations. While the magnitude, spatial distribution, and trend of the estimated CH4 emissions align with some previous studies, our results reveal an unexpected seasonal cycle in CH4 emissions from the oil and gas sector, where wintertime emissions are about 40 (20-50, 2σ) % higher than summertime. This seasonality is supported by methane and propane measurements at these same sites, as well as methane isotope measurements made from an independent aircraft campaign over the U.S. Although the exact cause of this emission seasonality is unclear, its spatial distribution indicates that the enhanced CH4 emissions are primarily from natural gas production regions, and to a lesser extent, from natural gas consumption in winter.

CO2 Reforming of Methane over Ru Supported Catalysts Under Mild Conditions.

The CO2 (Dry) Reforming of Methane (DRM) is a key process for reducing CO2 and CH4 emissions while producing syngas with an H2/CO ratio of 1, ideal for Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. This study explores DRM and the Reverse Water Gas Shift (RWGS) reaction under mild conditions using Ru-based catalysts supported on CeO2, YSZ, TiO2, and SiO2, with three reactant ratios: (i) stoichiometric, PCO2 = 1 kPa, PCH4 = 1 kPa, (ii) oxidizing, PCO2 = 2 kPa, PCH4 = 1 kPa, and (iii) reducing, PCO2 = 1 kPa, PCH4 = 4 kPa. The results highlight the importance of redox support for catalyst stability, with mobile lattice oxygen aiding carbon gasification. While Ru/CeO2 is stable at high temperatures, it rapidly deactivates at low temperatures, emphasizing the need for precise metal particle size control. This work demonstrates the necessity of fine-tuning catalyst properties for more sustainable DRM, offering insights for next-generation CO2 utilization catalysts.

Effects of Plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.) Metabolites Aucubin, Acteoside, and Catalpol on Methane Emissions In Vitro.

Plantain (PL) contains plant secondary metabolites (PSM), such as acteoside, aucubin, and catalpol, known for their bioactive properties. While acteoside and aucubin have been linked to reducing nitrogen losses in grazed pastures, their effects on enteric methane (CH4) emissions remain unexplored. Three in vitro batch culture experiments were conducted to assess the effects of PSM on rumen fermentation, using PL pastures with varying PSM concentrations, purified PSM compounds, and/or their combinations added to ryegrass (Lolium perenne, RG), which does not contain these PSM. Aucubin addition to RG extended the time to reach halftime for gas production (GP) and CH4 by 15-20% due to its antimicrobial effects. Acteoside, alone or with aucubin, promoted propionate production, an alternative hydrogen sink, which reduced the acetate to propionate ratio, increased GP by up to 13%, and decreased CH4 proportion in gas by 5-15%. Aucubin reduced ruminal net ammonia (NH3) production by up to 46%, with a similar reduction observed when combined with acteoside. This study highlights the potential of PSM to mitigate CH4 emissions and reduce nitrogen losses from dairy cows, warranting in vivo evaluation of PSM and targeted breeding of PL pastures with increased PSM content.

Multi-Criteria Assessment of Carbon Farming: Evaluating Key Performance Indicators

Carbon farming represents a critical approach for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions within the agricultural sector, contributing to climate neutrality goals set by the European Green Deal. This study develops a systematic framework for multi-criteria decision analysis for the assessment of result-based carbon farming mechanisms. A structured set of key performance indicators has been analysed and adopted for Latvian conditions, incorporating CO₂-equivalent reduction metrics, sustainability indicators, and cobenefit evaluations to quantify the environmental and socio-economic impacts of carbon sequestration practices. The identified KPIs encompass agronomic, economic, environmental, and social dimensions, including crop yield, land availability, water use efficiency, energy efficiency, cost per ton of CO₂ sequestered, return on investment, economic value of carbon sequestration, labour productivity, N₂O and CH₄ emissions intensity, land use efficiency, infrastructure availability, adoption rates of methods, and total greenhouse gas emission sequestration potential. The study evaluates a range of carbon farming practices, including zero tillage, minimal tillage, cover crops, intercrops, biogas production, biomethane, soil carbon capture, perennial plants, agroforestry, organic fertilization, crop diversity, crop rotation, biochar application, grazing management, organic permaculture, and bio-tillage. The results contribute to a comprehensive decision-making framework for policymakers, land managers, and agricultural stakeholders.

Valorization of Livestock Manure and Agricultural Residue for Biogas-Based Circular Economy in Kırklareli Province, Türkiye

Energy consumption is increasing due to population growth, rising prosperity, and the rapid advancement of technology. The predominant use of fossil fuels, which account for 81% of global energy consumption, has led to significant environmental problems, particularly climate change. Climate change has been a key global issue for the past two decades. The Paris Agreement, adopted at COP21 in 2015, marked the first global commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions post-2020. In 2019, the European Union (EU) launched the European Green Deal (EGD), aiming to limit global temperature rise to below 2°C and adapt to climate change. The EU's goal is to become the first climate-neutral continent by 2050, reshaping its policies across sectors like industry, energy, transportation, and agriculture. This study emphasizes the benefits of greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation, particularly focusing on the generation of bio-methane derived from livestock manure and agricultural residue in the Kırklareli province of Türkiye. This study also examines CH₄ emissions released by the livestock sector due to processes of enteric fermentation and manure management. According to the results obtained, bio-methane has a potential electricity generation capacity of 566 GWh year-1. CO₂ emissions from biogas energy production are calculated as 261492 tons CO₂eq year-1. Accordingly, the CO₂ emission mitigation capacity is determined to be between 310969 and 443799 tons CO₂eq year-1 based on the IPCC Guidelines' Middle East, Eastern Europe, and Asia values. This study also examines CH₄ emissions released by the livestock sector due to processes of enteric fermentation and manure management. Enteric fermentation and manure management -based CO₂eq emissions were calculated according to Tier 1 and Tier 2 approaches given in the IPCC Guidelines. This study aims to provide policymakers and relevant stakeholders with comprehensive information regarding the diversification of the energy mix. It emphasizes the benefits of GHG mitigation, particularly focusing on the generation of bio-methane derived from livestock manure and agricultural residues in the Kırklareli province of Türkiye.