Central Mountain Range Research Articles

Development of EST-SSR markers from an inner bark cDNA library of Fagus crenata (Fagaceae)

Fagus crenata Blume is widely distributed throughout Japanese cool-temperate deciduous broad-leaved forests, but there are two divergent groups of populations in areas with contrasting winter climates separated by Japan’s Central Mountain Range. To facilitate investigations of adaptive genetic differentiation of the species using potentially functional genes, we have collected Expressed Sequence Tags and developed Simple Sequence Repeat markers using a cDNA library constructed from cambium and surrounding tissues. In total, 270 primer pairs were designed, and 87 of the corresponding loci showed polymorphism in 16 individuals, with 2–21 alleles per locus and expected heterozygosities ranging from 0.06 to 0.97. EST-SSR markers developed in the present study will be useful for genomic analyses of F. crenata populations.

ANÁLISIS FLORÍSTICO Y ESTRUCTURAL DE LOS BOSQUES PREMONTANOS EN EL MUNICIPIO DE AMALFI (ANTIOQUIA, COLOMBIA)

The floristic composition and the structure of a hu mid hill forest were determined. The forest is located in the northernmost area of the Colombian Central Mountain Range. The methodology proposed by isa-jaum was employed in this study, from

Evaluating height structure in Scots pine forests using marked point processes

In this study, the second-moment analysis of marked spatial point processes is applied to the characterization of the tree height distribution in two Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris L.) forests in the Central Mountain Range of Spain. The cumulative function Lm(d) weighted by the normalized mark variance is proposed to analyse the second-order properties of marked point patterns. The empirical Lm(d) was compared with two null models to assess the relationship between the spatial distribution of the trees and the tree height correlations: the first null model was used to characterize the spatial clustering of the trees and was derived from the complete spatial randomness model used with Ripley’s K(d) function. The second null model, which is derived from the random labelling model used with the intertype second-moment measure K12(d) (type 1 intensity conditioned to the type 2 intensity and vice versa), allows us to identify the mark correlations. The performance of the technique was assessed through simulated marked point patterns. The second-moment analysis showed that most of the analysed Scots pine stands have a uniform height distribution at small scale and greater heterogeneity at large scales, with the exception of an upper altitudinal stand, which exhibited heterogeneity at short distances. These results demonstrate the utility of second-moment analysis of marked point processes for characterizing height structure in forest stands and the interaction between the height and the spatial pattern of the trees.

Snake Venomics of the Lancehead Pitviper Bothrops asper: Geographic, Individual, and Ontogenetic Variations

We report the comparative proteomic characterization of the venoms of adult and newborn specimens of the lancehead pitviper Bothrops asper from two geographically isolated populations from the Caribbean and the Pacific versants of Costa Rica. The crude venoms were fractionated by reverse-phase HPLC, followed by analysis of each chromatographic fraction by SDS-PAGE, N-terminal sequencing, MALDI-TOF mass fingerprinting, and collision-induced dissociation tandem mass spectrometry of tryptic peptides. The two B. asper populations, separated since the late Miocene or early Pliocene (8-5 mya) by the Guanacaste Mountain Range, Central Mountain Range, and Talamanca Mountain Range, contain both identical and different (iso)enzymes from the PLA 2, serine proteinase, and SVMP families. Using a similarity coefficient, we estimate that the similarity of venom proteins between the two B. asper populations may be around 52%. Compositional differences between venoms among different geographic regions may be due to evolutionary environmental pressure acting on isolated populations. To investigate venom variability among specimens from the two B. asper populations, the reverse-phase HPLC protein profiles of 15 venoms from Caribbean specimens and 11 venoms from snakes from Pacific regions were compared. Within each B. asper geographic populations, all major venom protein families appeared to be subjected to individual variations. The occurrence of intraspecific individual allopatric variability highlights the concept that a species, B. asper in our case, should be considered as a group of metapopulations. Analysis of pooled venoms of neonate specimens from Caribbean and Pacific regions with those of adult snakes from the same geographical habitat revealed prominent ontogenetic changes in both geographical populations. Major ontogenetic changes appear to be a shift from a PIII-SVMP-rich to a PI-SVMP-rich venom and the secretion in adults of a distinct set of PLA 2 molecules than in the neonates. In addition, the ontogenetic venom composition shift results in increasing venom complexity, indicating that the requirement for the venom to immobilize prey and initiate digestion may change with the size (age) of the snake. Besides ecological and taxonomical implications, the geographical venom variability reported here may have an impact in the treatment of bite victims and in the selection of specimens for antivenom production. The occurrence of intraspecies variability in the biochemical composition and symptomatology after envenomation by snakes from different geographical location and age has long been appreciated by herpetologist and toxinologists, though detailed comparative proteomic analysis are scarce. Our study represents the first detailed characterization of individual and ontogenetic venom protein profile variations in two geographical isolated B. asper populations, and highlights the necessity of using pooled venoms as a statistically representative venom for antivenom production.

Changing climate and endangered high mountain ecosystems in Colombia

High mountain ecosystems are among the most sensitive environments to changes in climatic conditions occurring on global, regional and local scales. The article describes the changing conditions observed over recent years in the high mountain basin of the Claro River, on the west flank of the Colombian Andean Central mountain range. Local ground truth data gathered at 4150m, regional data available at nearby weather stations, and satellite info were used to analyze changes in the mean and the variance, and significant trends in climatic time series. Records included minimum, mean and maximum temperatures, relative humidity, rainfall, sunshine, and cloud characteristics. In high levels, minimum and maximum temperatures during the coldest days increased at a rate of about 0.6°C/decade, whereas maximum temperatures during the warmest days increased at a rate of about 1.3°C/decade. Rates of increase in maximum, mean and minimum diurnal temperature range reached 0.6, 0.7, and 0.5°C/decade. Maximum, mean and minimum relative humidity records showed reductions of about 1.8, 3.9 and 6.6%/decade. The total number of sunny days per month increased in almost 2.1 days. The headwaters exhibited no changes in rainfall totals, but evidenced an increased occurrence of unusually heavy rainfall events. Reductions in the amount of all cloud types over the area reached 1.9%/decade. In low levels changes in mean monthly temperatures and monthly rainfall totals exceeded + 0.2°C and − 4% per decade, respectively. These striking changes might have contributed to the retreat of glacier icecaps and to the disappearance of high altitude water bodies, as well as to the occurrence and rapid spread of natural and man-induced forest fires. Significant reductions in water supply, important disruptions of the integrity of high mountain ecosystems, and dramatic losses of biodiversity are now a steady menu of the severe climatic conditions experienced by these fragile tropical environments.

The Secondary Low and Heavy Rainfall Associated with Typhoon Mindulle (2004)

Abstract This paper presents an observational and numerical study of Typhoon Mindulle (2004) as it affected Taiwan. Mindulle made landfall on the east coast of Taiwan at 1500 UTC 1 July 2004, and after 13 h, it exited Taiwan from the north coast. Severe rainfall (with a maximum amount of 787 mm) occurred over central-southwestern Taiwan on 2 July 2004. During the landfall of Mindulle’s main circulation, a secondary low formed over the Taiwan Strait. However, the secondary low, after it developed significantly (vorticity exceeded 5 × 10−4 s−1 over a 30-km radius), did not replace the original center as was observed in many other storms. Instead, it moved inland and dissipated after the original center redeveloped near the north coast of Taiwan. In this study, the evolution of the secondary low, the redevelopment of the primary center, and the processes leading to the severe rainfall were examined. Results showed that the processes leading to the formation and the development of the secondary low were similar to those described in previous studies. These processes include the leeside subsidence warming, the horizontal transport of vorticity around the northern tip of the Central Mountain Range (CMR), and the overmountain upper-level vorticity remnant. However, because of the northward track, Mindulle preserved some strong vorticity on the eastern slope of the CMR. This strong vorticity remnant was steered northward over the ocean offshore from the north coast where the redevelopment of the primary center occurred. This “quasi-continuous track” of Mindulle has not been documented in previous studies. The vortex interaction between the redeveloped primary center and the secondary low resulted in the northeastward movement of the secondary low, which then dissipated after making landfall. Analyses also showed that even though heavy rainfall would occur over the mountain area when only the southwesterly flow prevailed, as on 3 July 2004, Typhoon Mindulle and the secondary low provided extra convergence that resulted in the west–east-oriented convective bands. These convective bands and the orographic lifting of the circulation associated with the secondary low resulted in the heavy rainfall over the central-western plains area.

Characteristics analysis for the flash flood-induced debris flows

Typhoon Haitang caused landfall on Taiwan during 15-21 July, 2005 and brought 2,279 mm of maximum cumulative rain with a maximum intensity of 176 mm/h. The torrential rain was mainly distributed from the central mountain range to southern Taiwan and triggered 222 slopeland-related hazards. Among the hazard events, there were 17 debris flows, 157 cases of traffic cut-off, three large-magnitude deep-seated landslides, and 10 villages isolated in the off-track mountainous areas. The debris flows initiated in southern Taiwan were associated with torrential rain, short channel length (\2 km), and small basin area (\ 3k m 2 ), and were speculated to be induced by flash flood. These flash flood-induced debris flows have a higher rainfall intensity-duration threshold for initiation than in other areas. The deep-seated landslides, isolated villages due to traffic cut-off in off-track mountain areas, and recurrent hazards in areas affected by the ML 7.6 Chi-Chi earthquake in 1999 are characteristics of slopeland hazards in Taiwan in recent years. One of the most urgently needed mitigation strategies in response to slopeland hazards is the plan for enhancing self-rescue disaster resistance in off-track mountainous villages in Taiwan.

TWO NEW HYNOBIUS (CAUDATA: HYNOBIIDAE) SALAMANDERS FROM TAIWAN

The species diversity of Taiwan Hynobius salamanders has long been debated. In this study, we analyzed morphological and molecular data from these taxonomically problematic salamanders. Our results show that, based on mitochondrial sequence data, there are five distinct clades of Taiwanese Hynobius. This result is consistent with morphologically-based analyses. Three of the clades have been described as distinct species, and our results corroborate their recognition, while the other two are described as new species in this paper. The first new species described is a moderately large, five-toed species. Coloration of dorsum is yellowish brown with irregular, black, short stripes and a gray ventral surface. This species is found in the northern Central and Syueshan Mountain Range at elevations above 3000 m, and has an average cytochrome b sequence divergence from other Taiwanese species ranging from 5.2% to 10.1%. The second new species described is small but robust, has a short tail and limbs, and has four...

A new species of Penaincisalia (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae: Eumaeini) from the high Andes of Colombia

A new species of Penaincisalia from the central mountain range of Colombia is described and diagnosed. We present a brief discussion on the systematic placement of Penaincisalia cuiva Prieto & Rodríguez n. sp. within the genus. The species is apparently a member of the “browni group”, and we discuss its relationships with other members of this group. Adult specimens of both sexes and the genitalia of the male are illustrated and compared with P. magnifica, the most closely related species according to phenotypic appearance. A key to the known species of the “browni group” is provided.

Blow fly Trypocalliphora braueri parasitism on Meadow Pipit and Bluethroat nestlings in Central Europe

The larvae of blow fly (Trypocalliphora braueri) are known to cause a subcutaneous myiasis in bird nestlings mainly in Nearctic species, while only a few records are available from the Palaearctic. Here, we report on infestations of this insect ectoparasite in two passerine species, Meadow Pipit (Anthus pratensis) and Bluethroat (Luscinia svecica), breeding in the Central European mountain range Krkonose. The infestation of T. braueri parasite was relatively low in studied bird species (3.0% of infested nests in Meadow Pipit and 4.2% in Bluethroat) but varied strongly between years (0–33% of infested nests/year/species). The presence of the parasitic blow fly larvae was apparently controlled by temperature; they were found only during warm summers. The combination of parasite infection and heavy rainfalls in a critical period significantly reduced nestling survival.

Characterization of the spatial structure of the canopy in Pinus silvestris L. stands in Central Spain from hemispherical photographs

The spatial pattern was characterized in five experimental plots of 0.5 ha established in Scots pine stands located in the Central Mountain Range of Spain with different ecological conditions and in which different silvicultural practises are employed. A new method is proposed to asses the spatial pattern from hemispherical photographs, based on the variance between the gap fractions in sky sectors, which was calculated as a function of the angular distance. The results were compared with the spatial pattern analysis based on the second moment measure, and with the analysis of the structure of the tree number semivariogram. The three methods give a very similar scale of the pattern for most of the plots. The mature plot with more intensive silviculture showed a regular pattern at scales below 6 m. The mature plot in which the silviculture was less intensive showed a cluster pattern at scales around 10 m, and clustering at similar scales was detected during regeneration. Cluster patterns at scales around 5 m were found at the upper limit of the altitudinal range of Scots pine as well as at the lower limit, where Pyrenean oak stands merge with the pinewood. The method proposed allows the scale of the pattern of the canopy to be determined from hemispherical photographs, and can be easily implemented in forest inventories.

Finding threatened forest areas in the central volcanic mountain range conservation area in Costa Rica

The degree at which tropical forests are exposed to human pressure is spatially dependent. Population density, proximity to roads, terrain slope, logging activities and land distribution projects are well known factors inducing deforestation and forest degradation in Latin America. Using expert knowledge to weight these threat factors and a Geographical Information System for spatial modeling, a multi-criteria analysis procedure is presented, that allows stratifying a study region in categories of deforestation threat. The procedure was implemented in the Central Volcanic Mountain Range Conservation Area (CVMRCA) in Costa Rica with the purpose of finding areas with a combination of physical and socioeconomic characteristics that is particularly predisposing to a high probability of deforestation. To validate the map, the CVMRCA was stratified in categories of deforestation risk, and the result was superposed to historical deforestation data of the period 1986-1996. The good correlation between risk category and historical deforestation (r = 0.91, p < 0.001) indicates that the map can be used as a decision support tool for defining priority areas for conservation action.

&lt;i&gt;Wigandia brevistyla&lt;/i&gt;: una nueva Hydrophyllaceae de la Rep&amp;#250;blica Dominicana

Wigandia brevistyla X. Cornejo is segregated here from W. pruritiva Spreng. due to its characteristics. Very short styles, shorter corollas and a distinctive allopatric distribution, that is restricted to the central mountain range (Cordillera Central) in the Dominican Republic.

Leaf area index estimation in mountain even-aged Pinus silvestris L. stands from hemispherical photographs

In this study a stand level approach is proposed for estimating leaf area index (LAI) in even-aged Scots pine stands using gap fraction data derived from hemispherical photographs. The approach includes both the effect of the spatial distribution of the foliage elements as well as the slope of the terrain. Two chronosequences consisting of 11 plots were established in two Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris L.) forests in the Central Mountain Range of Spain. 12 hemispherical photographs were taken in each plot and variables related to the stage of development, density, relative spacing and site index were calculated. The gap frequency Poisson model was used to estimate the leaf area index. A new function is proposed to assess the effect of the foliage inclination on light transmittance for Scots pine, based on the assumption that the foliage elements show circular horizontal cross-sections. A new model was also developed to restrict the clumping effect on the vertical component in the Poisson model. The effect of the slope on LAI estimates was determined and included in the model. The results indicate that both the clumping effect correction and the slope correction improve the fitting of the Poisson model to the gap frequency experimental curves, and that the function proposed for the inclination angle correction may provide an acceptable approach for some coniferous species. The relationship between the parameters of the gap fraction model (the foliage inclination angle and the clumping coefficient) and stand level variables, that is, the stage of development, density, spacing of the stand and the site index, is analysed.

Geographic variation and parameter assessment in generalized algebraic difference site index modelling

Parameter assessment in site index modelling has proved useful prior to model specification. A base-age invariant model that supports polymorphism and variable asymptotes was fitted for Mediterranean Maritime pine in the inland part of Iberian Peninsula. A generalized algebraic formulation of Hossfeld's model was found to be the most appropriate model in terms of biological consistency and fit statistics throughout the range of the data. Models were fitted to data from stem analysis and permanent sample plot measurement using a dummy variable approach and a continuous-time autoregressive structure to correct for autocorrelation. Model performance was evaluated using Jack–knife techniques applied to each growth series. The selected model was used in a regional-based comparison of growth patterns. The parameter identified as ‘global’ in the first part of the study was expanded with dummy variables to assess the differences among regions. The stands located in the Northern Plateau, the Central Mountain Range, and South Eastern Mountains, exhibited different growth patterns from one another. However, these regions show a similar growth pattern to stands located in their origin of dispersion (Iberian Mountain Range). Consideration was also given to other factors which might lead to variation, such as environmental conditions.

Distribution of PM2.5 and Gaseous Species in Central Taiwan During two Chinese Festival Periods

Measurements of PM2.5 and acidic gases were conducted at an inland site of Taichung basin. The sampling site was Nantou, which is located at a distance of 25 km from the Taichung city. Nantou represents an inland area surrounded by Central Mountain Ranges and Baqua Hill. The sampling timings were in the month of April (during Tomb-Sweeping Festival) and in September (during Mid-Autumn Festival). PM2.5 samples were collected with an annular denuder system. Aerosol ionic species including sulfate (SO42−), nitrate (NO3−), ammonium (NH4+), chloride (Cl−), calcium (Ca2+), potassium (K+), and sodium (Na+) and gaseous nitric acid (HNO3), hydrochloric (HCl), and sulfur dioxide (SO2) were analyzed. Results showed that the average PM2.5 concentration were 41.3 μg m−3 during the Tomb-Sweeping Festival period and 65.3 μg m−3 during the Mid-Autumn Festival period. The major particle-phase ionic species was sulfate (SO42−) during both the Chinese Festival periods. Ozone concentration was higher during the Mid-Autumn Festival. Sulfate (SO42−) and nitrate (NO3−) concentrations were well correlated with daily maximum ozone (O3) concentration. The time weight mean concentration data showed that the increased concentration of gas-phase sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfate (SO42−) were transported from Taichung City, which is located close to the sampling site. Based on our above obtained results, the Mid-Autumn Festival period showed more anthropogenic impact on the aerosol and gaseous distribution favored by meteorological factors, higher ambient temperature, and wind direction.

Four new species of terrestrial earthworms belonging to the genus Amynthas (Megascolecidae: Oligochaeta) from Taiwan with discussion on speculative synonyms and species delimitation in oligochaete taxonomy

This paper describes four new species of earthworms, Amynthas shinanmontis sp. nov., Amynthas chilanensis sp. nov., Amynthas bilineatus sp. nov., and Amynthas cruxus sp. nov. from Taiwan. Amynthas shinanmontis is sexthecate and parthenogenetic with individuals with various levels of degeneration of spermathecae and male reproductive organs. It occurs at elevations of 1700–2700 m in the Central Mountain Range in southern Taiwan. Amynthas bilineatus and A. chilanensis are athecate and also parthenogenetic. They occur, respectively, at elevations of 1000 m in the central region and 1325 m in the northeastern region of Taiwan. Amynthas cruxus is octothecate, amphimictic, and occurs at elevations of 900–1700 m in southern Taiwan. This paper also discusses confusion and dilemma caused by uncertain, speculative synonyms and parthenogenetic morphs in species delimitation in oligochaete taxonomy, and recommends the use of absolute synonyms and phylogenetic species concept.

A numerical study of an autumn high ozone episode over southwestern Taiwan

Elevated ozone concentration is one of the current major environmental concerns in Taiwan. The spatial distribution and seasonal variations of ground level ozone over Taiwan are investigated by using air quality network stations of Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration (TEPA). Data shows that high ozone episodes frequently occur over southwest Taiwan during autumn. In this season, shallow northeasterly winds prevail after frontal passage and are diverted by the Central Mountain Range (CMR) because of its mean altitude of about 2.5 km. The windward side in northern Taiwan is usually associated with cloudy days, whereas sunny days with weak wind speeds usually occur on the lee side of the CMR over southwest Taiwan due to topographical blocking. Numerical results indicate that anthropogenic emissions from the north of Kaohsiung could contribute as much as 41% of ozone for the Kaohsiung metropolitan area and 24% for the inland rural Pingtung area during the northerly flow. It is concluded that the contribution of the emissions from the north of Kaohsiung is significant and cannot be ignored. The northerly air masses, which flows over the western plain during daytime, picks up ozone and its precursors which are transported to southwestern Taiwan. After a sea breeze develops, strong onshore flow transports significant amounts of ozone and precursors to the inland rural areas resulting in the high ozone episodes that frequently occur over southwestern Taiwan during the autumn season.

Dynamics of Track Deflection Associated with the Passage of Tropical Cyclones over a Mesoscale Mountain

Abstract In this study, the fifth-generation Pennsylvania State University–National Center for Atmospheric Research (PSU–NCAR) Mesoscale Model (MM5) was used to simulate Supertyphoon Bilis (in 2000) and Typhoon Toraji (in 2001) in order to investigate the dynamics of track deflection caused by the Central Mountain Range (CMR) of Taiwan. The MM5 predicted the track of each storm reasonably well. Bilis was stronger and had a relatively faster forward motion, which helped make the track continuous as it crossed the CMR. The use of a “bogus” vortex in the initialization process helped produce a storm closer to the observed strength. Bilis is a classic example of a typhoon crossing Taiwan with a continuous track. For comparison, Typhoon Toraji, a typical typhoon having a discontinuous track, was also studied. Toraji was weaker and had a relatively slower forward speed, which prevented the original low center from crossing over the CMR and forced more air parcels to go around the northern tip of the CMR. As a result, it produced a vortex and a secondary low center on the lee. Potential vorticity banners on the north side of the CMR acted to organize the secondary low and the lee vortex. With time, the low-level circulation extended into the upper levels, completing the formation of the secondary center. Remnants of the initial center crossed over the CMR and were entrained into the secondary center. Nondimensional control parameters for track continuity and deflection from idealized studies are calculated for Bilis and Toraji. The results are consistent with the theory proposed in Lin et al. For tropical cyclones (TCs) approaching Taiwan from the southeast, the conceptual model proposed by Lin et al. for continuous and discontinuous tracks was applied. For continuous tracks over the CMR, the blocking effect on the outer circulation of the vortex is weak and the vorticity advection around the northern tip is strong due to an intense TC. Weak TCs tend to be totally blocked by the CMR.

Revealing Surface Deformation of the 1999 Chi-Chi Earthquake Using High-Density Cadastral Control Points in the Taichung Area, Central Taiwan

The 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake, M w 7.6, ruptured a major thrust fault along the western foothills of the Central Mountain Range of Taiwan. Here, we use cadastral control points to detect horizontal displacement in Taichung, central Taiwan. The cadastral control points were used to identify the coordinates of buildings and acreage. The coordinates of each point are measured by total station and connected to Global Positioning System (gps) control points. The density of these control points is nearly 36 points/km2 and the accuracy of each point is within less than 2–3 cm. The government of Taiwan measured cadastral control points before and after the Chi-Chi earthquake in the Taichung area (northern end of the Chelungpu fault); 1269 control points were measured over a 35-km2 area with most control points being located on the hanging wall of the Chelungpu fault. On the footwall, the displacement is about 1.1–1.2 m toward 123° to 128°, which is consistent with gps data. At the hanging wall, the displacement direction concentrates at 326° to 330°. In the eastern section, the displacement is from 7.5 to 8 m, which is consistent with gps and strong- motion data, but in the western part displacement changes from 8 m to 4–6 m and then increases again to 8 m along the 326° trending. We conclude that the changes in displacements were controlled by the geometry of the fault plane. Online material: Horizontal displacement of cadastral control points.