Cementation Technique Research Articles

The Influence of a Modified 3rd Generation Cementation Technique and Vaccum Mixing of Bone Cement on the Bone Cement Implantation Syndrome (BCIS) in Geriatric Patients with Cemented Hemiarthroplasty for Femoral Neck Fractures.

Background and Objectives: Cemented hemi arthroplasty is a common and effective procedure performed to treat femoral neck fractures in elderly patients. The bone cement implantation syndrome (BCIS) is a severe and potentially fatal complication which can be associated with the implantation of a hip prosthesis. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of a modified cementing technique on the incidence of BCIS. Material and Methods: The clinical data of patients which were treated with a cemented hip arthroplasty after the introduction of the modified 3rd generation cementing technique were compared with a matched group of patients who were treated with a 2nd generation cementing technique. The anesthesia charts for all patients were reviewed for the relevant parameters before, during and after cementation. Each patient was classified as having no BCIS (grade 0) or BCIS grade 1,2, or 3 depending on the severity of hypotension, hypoxia loss of consciousness. Results: A total of 92 patients with complete data sets could be included in the study. The mean age was 83 years. 43 patients (Group A) were treated with a 2nd and 49 patients (Group B) with a 3rd generation cementing technique. The incidence of BCIS grade 1,2, and 3 was significantly higher (p = 0,036) in group A (n = 25; 58%) compared to group B (n = 17; 35%). Early mortality was higher in group A (n = 4) compared to group B (n = 0). Conclusions: BCIS is a potentially severe complication with a significant impact on early mortality following cemented hemiarthroplasty of the hip for the treatment of proximal femur fracture. Using a modified 3rd generation cementing technique, it is possible to significantly reduce the incidence of BCIS and its associated mortality.

Resin cement around tissue and bone level dental implants after two cementation techniques (an in vitro study)

Purpose: To detect the retained excess resin cement around tissue and bone level dental implants following two different cementation techniques. Methods: Fourteen tissue level and fourteen bone level implants (OCO Biomedical, U.S.A.) were embedded in models (Salvin Dental Specialties, U.S.A.) having rubber surface simulating the gingiva. Twenty-eight metal copings were fabricated and cemented to the implant’s abutments by RelyX U200 resin cement (3M, U.S.A.). Each group was subdivided according to the cementation technique into two subgroups: A1 and B1: Tack cure of the excess cement for three seconds, the partially set resin cement was carefully removed before complete cure. A2 and B2: 1mm vent was performed on the occlusal surfaces. Excess cement was carefully removed followed by a final cure. Rubber coverage was removed, retained cement net weight was determined. All specimens were visually examined under 30x magnification using Stereomicroscope (SZ-11, Japan). Results: Tissue level implants following the tack cure protocol had less retained excess cement percentage than the occlusal vent protocol. Statistical comparison showed a significant difference in the excess cement percentage within the tissue level subgroups (p=0.018), No significant difference observed within the bone level subgroups (p=0.096).

Resin cement around tissue and bone level dental implants after two cementation techniques (An In Vitro Study)

Purpose: To detect the retained excess resin cement around tissue and bone level dental implants following two different cementation techniques. Methods: Fourteen tissue level and fourteen bone level implants (OCO Biomedical, U.S.A.) were embedded in models (Salvin Dental Specialties, U.S.A.) having rubber surface simulating the gingiva. Twenty-eight metal copings were fabricated and cemented to the implant’s abutments by RelyX U200 resin cement (3M, U.S.A.). Each group was subdivided according to the cementation technique into two subgroups: A1 and B1: Tack cure of the excess cement for three seconds, the partially set resin cement was carefully removed before complete cure. A2 and B2: 1mm vent was performed on the occlusal surfaces. Excess cement was carefully removed followed by a final cure. Rubber coverage was removed, retained cement net weight was determined. All specimens were visually examined under 30x magnification using Stereomicroscope (SZ-11, Japan). Results: Tissue level implants following the tack cure protocol had less retained excess cement percentage than the occlusal vent protocol. Statistical comparison showed a significant difference in the excess cement percentage within the tissue level subgroups (p=0.018), No significant difference observed within the bone level subgroups (p=0.096). 

Impact of polyethylene glenoid cementation technique on cement mantle integrity and stability after cyclic loading: a computed tomography and biomechanical study

There are no generally accepted guidelines for polyethylene (PE) glenoid component cementation techniques. In particular, it is not known whether the backside of a PE glenoid should be fully or partially cemented-or not cemented at all. We hypothesized that cementing techniques would have an impact on cement mantle volume and integrity, as well as biomechanical stability, measured as micromotion under cyclic loading. To address our hypothesis, 3 different cementation techniques using a single 2-peg PE glenoid design with polyurethane foam were compared regarding (1) the quality and quantity of the cement mantle and (2) biomechanical stability after cyclic loading invitro. Eight identically cemented glenoids per group were used. Group A underwent cement application only into the peg holes, group B received additional complete cement mantle application on the backside of the glenoid, and group C received the same treatment as group B but with additional standardized drill holes in the surface of the glenoid bone for extra cement interdigitation. All glenoids underwent cyclic edge loading by 105 cycles according to ASTM F2028-14. Before and after loading, cement mantle evaluation was performed by XtremeCT and biomechanical strength and loosening were evaluated by measuring the relative motion of the implants. The cement mantle at the back of the implant was incomplete in group A as compared with groups B and C, in which the complete PE backside was covered with a homogeneous cement mantle. The cement mantle was thickest in group C, followed by group B (P=.006) and group A (P<.001). We did not detect any breakage of the cement mantle in any of the 3 groups after testing. Primary stability during cyclic loading was similar in all groups after the "running-in" phase (up to 4000 cycles). Gross loosening did not occur in any implant. Coverage of the PE glenoid with cement was reproducible in the fully cemented groups (ie, groups B and C) as compared with relevant cement defects in group A. The addition of cement to the back of the PE glenoid and additional drill holes in the glenoid surface did not improve primary stability in the tested setting.

Femoral Stem Cementation in Primary Total Hip Arthroplasty.

Femoral stem cementation has undergone considerable investigation since bone cement was first used in arthroplasty, leading to the evolution of modern femoral stem cementation techniques. Although there is a worldwide trend toward the use of cementless components, cemented femoral stems have shown superiority in some studies and have clear indications in specific populations. There is a large evidence base regarding cement properties, preparation, and application techniques that underlie current beliefs and practice, but considerable controversy still exists. Although the cementing process adds technical complexity to total hip arthroplasty, growing evidence supports its use in certain cohorts. As such, it is critical that orthopaedic surgeons and investigators have a thorough understanding of the fundamentals and evidence underlying modern cementation techniques.

Panorama actual de la Zirconia en el Bruxismo: Presentación de un caso

At the present there are different bioceramics, among them, Zirconia, the choice of material for a specific clinical situation must consider aesthetic properties such as translucency and mechanical properties such as fracture toughness, flexural strength and survival rate to ensure the longevity of the prosthesis, especially in the&#x0D; presence of parafunctional activity such as bruxism. The objective of this work is to present the thematic review about the different types of Zirconia and also show what are the criteria for the ideal selection of the material through a clinical case in which it was chosen to select a monolithic Zirconia made up since long-term scientific evidence for fixed prostheses reports frequent chipping in Zirconia veneers. In addition, the cementation technique for Zirconia gives a higher success rate to the restoration, which we describe in this article.

Bond Strength to Dentine and Degree of Conversion of Adhesive Systems

Objectives: The study evaluated the bond strength, degree of conversion and fracture pattern of the hybrid layer in cement-dentin adhesion techniques. Materials and Methods: Bovine teeth dentin blocks were divided according to the cementation techniques: G1- Conventional three-step adhesive and dual-curing resin cement; G2- One-step self-etch adhesive and dual-curing resin cement; G3-Self-adhesive resin cement; and G4- Self-adhesive primer and dual-curing resin cement. Specimens were submitted to thermal cycling, chemical aging or water storage. Bond strength was evaluated by testing machine; fracture pattern observed by optical microscopy, and degree of conversion evaluated in micro-Raman spectrophotometer. Data were analyzed by two-way ANOVA and Tukey's test (α=0.05). Results: G1 showed greatest bond strength (p&lt;0.001) followed by the G2 with higher values compared to G3 and G4, and no difference between them. For G2, G3 and G4, the thermal cycling affected the bond strength. The greatest degree of conversion was for G2 with Single Bond Universal, significantly higher than Scotchbond and RelyX U200. G4 provided highest value for the cement layer, and statistically higher than G1. G1 showed the highest strength than G3 associated to resin cement or self-adhesive resin cement. Different fracture patterns were observed. Conclusions: Aging methods reduced the bond strength. Degree of conversion was highest in the adhesive layer photo activated and in the cement layer with dual activation. Different fracture patterns were observed. Clinical Relevance: Resin cements degree of conversion and fracture pattern of the hybrid layer are relevant factors in the different bond strength values obtained in adhesive protocols.

What’s New in Hip Replacement

What’s New in Hip Replacement

Assessment of Different Techniques for Adhesive Cementation of All-Ceramic Systems.

Background and Objectives: Modern esthetic dentistry is based on all-ceramic restorations. Dentists still have reservations about using these restorations due to a lack of understanding of the cementation technique, which depends on the type of ceramic used. The aim of the study is to evaluate the approaches and practices of clinicians regarding the adhesive cementation of all-ceramic restorations. Materials and Methods: An online questionnaire regarding the use of all-ceramic restorations and their bonding methods was designed by distinguishing the cementation of oxide and silica-based ceramics. The survey included dentists practicing in Timiș County, Romania. The questionnaire and the evaluation of the answers were designed based on the techniques and evidence from the literature. Results: Considering the work experience, we obtained two groups: group 1—1 to 6 years and group 2—6 to 9+ years. The results revealed significant values when comparing the two groups in the surface protocol and decontamination (p = 0.005), type of cement used (p = 0.002), and isolation techniques (p = 0.002). Conclusions: The results show that many clinicians need additional training to improve their cementing technique and avoid the confusion caused by insufficient information about the interrelationship between the type of ceramic and the cementation procedure.

Are We Training Surgeons to Cement a Femoral Component in Hip Arthroplasty? The Trainees' Perspective.

The importance of surgical technique is widely recognized when cementing a femoral component in hip arthroplasty. Concern exists that surgeon trainees in the United States are not being adequately trained in cement technique. The purpose of this study is to describe recent trainees' perceived experience with their training in this skill. Orthopedic graduate candidates attending a national board review course were polled with an anonymous 15-question survey regarding their experiences during training with cemented femoral components. Means and standard deviations were calculated for Likert scale questions, and univariate statistics were used to compare answers for select questions. A total of 152 surveys were completed. Ninety percent of respondents anticipated that they would be performing hemiarthroplasty for fracture in their future practice, 99% of whom anticipated using cement for stem fixation in at least some of these cases. Only a minority of respondents planned further training in an adult reconstruction fellowship (21%). Only 37% of residents perceived their training in cement technique to be comprehensive or very comprehensive, with 17% reporting that their training was inadequate or nonexistent. Forty percent reported being less than satisfied with their training. Although 96% of residents felt prepared to implant a cementless femoral component, only 82% felt adequately trained to properly cement a femoral implant. Feeling prepared to perform a well done cemented femoral stem correlated with higher percentage of cemented stems in training and higher satisfaction with training (both P= .001). Although most trainees feel prepared to cement a femoral component, many young surgeons do not perceive that they are receiving adequate training in femoral cement technique.

Enhancing the Oxidation Behavior of Zr-Modified Aluminide Coatings on Inconel 600 at Different Temperatures

In the recent search nickel superalloy Inconel 600 was coated with Zr-modified aluminide diffusion coating using pack cementation technique. Diffusion coating was done in a single step utilizing a conversion reaction of 10% Al, 2% ZrO2, 4% NaCl, and 84 percent Al2O3 (wt. percent ) and a simultaneous aluminizing-zirconizing process. The diffusion coating operations were performed in an argon environment at 1050 °C for 10 hours. The test of the isothermal oxidation in dry air was performed on the Inconel Alloy 600 (IA600) without and with Zr-modified aluminide coating for 800-1000 °C. The oxidation kinetic of IA600 and its coated system was found to follow the parabolic law. The activation energy is 243 kJ/mol. for the coated system and 457 kJ/mol. for the uncoated system. XRD analysis show that oxide phases are formed on an uncoated IA600 surface during most of the oxidation exposure conditions are NiO, Cr2O3, Fe2O3, NiCr2O4 and NiFe2O4, , whereas alumina scale is the major oxide that is obtained on the surface of coated samples.

High Survivorship of a Modular Titanium Baseplate Independent of Body Mass Index and Malalignment.

Tibial component aseptic loosening remains problematic in primary total knee arthroplasty (TKA). Influential factors include component design, metallurgy, and cement technique. Additionally, reports advocate for longer tibial stem fixation in high body mass index (BMI) patients. We have utilized a single stem length modular titanium baseplate in patients regardless of BMI, bone quality, or malalignment. We report the survivorship of this implant with focus on the impact of elevated BMI and postoperative malalignment. We retrospectively reviewed patients who underwent TKA with a single modular titanium baseplate with a cruciate-shaped keel between 2004 and 2018. In total, 2,949 TKAs with a minimum of 1-year follow-up were included. The mean follow-up was 7 years. The primary outcome was component failure stratified by BMI and postoperative malalignment. High viscosity cement was utilized in all cases. Chi-squared and t-tests were used to compare outcome variables across groups. Eighty-five implants (2.8%) were revised with 46 (1.6%) for aseptic loosening. Failure was not associated with BMI, gender, American Society of Anesthesiologists class, or Charlson Comorbidity Index. There was no difference in failure rate by BMI (P= .26) or by malalignment (outside of 3° from neutral mechanical axis) (P= .67). Age was associated with failure as patients with failed TKAs were younger (61 vs 65, P < .01). This design of a specific modular titanium base plate with a cruciate-shaped keel and grit blast surface demonstrated 99% survivorship regardless of patient BMI or malalignment over 7-year follow-up period. Consistent cement technique with high viscosity cement indicates that component design remains an important variable impacting survivorship in TKA.

Endurance Behavior of Cemented Tibial Tray Fixation Under Anterior Shear and Internal-External Torsional Shear Testing: A New Methodological Approach

BackgroundEarly total knee arthroplasty failures continue to surface in the literature. Cementation technique and implant design are two of the most important scenarios that can affect implant survivorship. Our objectives were to develop a more suitable preclinical test to evaluate the endurance of the implant-cement-bone interface under anterior shear and internal-external (I/E) torsional shear testing condition in a biomechanical sawbones. MethodsImplants tested included the AS VEGA System PS and the AS Columbus CR/PS (Aesculap AG, Germany), with zirconium nitride (ZrN) coating. Tibial implants were evaluated under anterior shear and I/E torsional shear conditions with 6 samples in 4 test groups. For the evaluation of the I/E torsional shear endurance behavior, a test setup was created allowing for clinically relevant I/E rotation with simultaneous high axial/tibio-femoral load. The test was performed with an I/E displacement of ±17.2°, for 1 million cycles with an axial preload of 3,000 N. ResultsAfter the anterior shear test an implant-cement-bone fixation strength for the AS VEGA System tibial tray of 2,674 ± 754 N and for the AS Columbus CR/PS tibial tray of 2,177 ± 429 N was determined (P = .191). After I/E rotational shear testing an implant-cement-bone fixation strength for the AS VEGA System PS tray of 2,561 ± 519 N and for the AS Columbus CR/PS tray of 2,824 ± 515 N was resulted (P = .39). ConclusionBoth methods had varying degrees of failure modes from debonding to failure of the sawbones foam. These two intense biomechanical loading tests are more strenuous and more representative of clinical activity.

Effect of Cementation Technique on Retention of All Ceramic Crowns Cemented to Zirconia and Titanium Implant Abutments: A Comparative in Vitro Study

Objective: The aim of this study is to evaluate the retention of lithium disilicate crowns cemented by resin cement on zirconia and titanium implant abutments coated with glycerin and eugenol. Materials and Methods: Forty implant analogs were embedded in forty blocks of epoxy resin. Twenty implant analogs received a zirconia implant abutment to which 20 IPS e.max press crowns were cemented. The other twenty implant analogs received a titanium implant abutment to which 20 IPS e.max press crowns were cemented. According to the cementation technique, the samples were subdivided into two groups, 10 samples each. In Gp A, zirconia implant abutments’ surfaces were coated with a single coat of eugenol before cementing crowns with the permanent resin luting cement. In Gp B, same as in Gp B with replacement of eugenol with single coat of glycerin. In Gp C, Titanium implant abutments’ surfaces were coated with a single coat of eugenol before cementing crowns with the permanent resin luting cement. In Gp D, same as in Gp C with replacement of eugenol with single coat of glycerin. Each sample was subjected to a pull-out test. Loads required to remove the crowns were recorded, and mean values for each group determined. Data were statistically analyzed. Results: The mean values ±SD of loads at failure (n -10) for each group were as follows in Newton (N): Group(A) 141.9±17.9, Group(B) 134±14.5, Group(C) 140.5±17, Group(D) 143.6±12.4. All groups showed statistically insignificant difference in retention (p&lt;0.05). Conclusions: There was no significant difference between eugenol and glycerin coated zirconia implant abutments in retention of lithium disilicate crowns. There was no significant difference between eugenol and glycerin coated titanium implant abutments in retention of lithium disilicate crowns.

Hybrid Cementation Technique Using the New Modular System for Aseptic Knee Arthroplasty Revision Surgery.

To evaluate the clinical and radiological outcomes of aseptic revision of total knee arthroplasty (TKA) using the Vanguard 360 Revision Knee System with the hybrid cementation technique. Between January 2014 and October 2016, nineteen aseptic revision TKAs were carried out with the Vanguard 360 Revision Knee System (Zimmer-Biomet, Warsaw, IN, USA) performed by two different surgeons. The patients were evaluated clinically and radiographically at one, six, and twelve months after surgery and yearly thereafter. Functional outcomes were assessed according to the range of motion (ROM), knee society knee score (KSKS) and knee society function score (KSFS). Radiological evaluations were performed using the hip-knee-ankle angle (HKA), weight-bearing anteroposterior view, latero-lateral view, Rosenberg x-rays of the knee and skyline patellar x-rays. A triple-phase technetium bone scan was performed on all the patients complaining of knee pain after one year from surgery. Clinical and radiological results including KSKS, KSFS, ROM and HKA angle improved after revision of TKA with a statistically significant difference (p <0.05). There were seven revisions of the CCK prosthesis due to persistent pain. Patients who underwent revision of TKA using the Vanguard 360 with the hybrid cementation technique had a failure rate of 36.8% at a mean time of 29 months due to aseptic loosening. Further studies are required to analyse the role of cementation in detail to prevent this complication.

Bone Cements Used for Hip Prosthesis Fixation: The Influence of the Handling Procedures on Functional Properties Observed during In Vitro Study.

The failure of hip prostheses is a problem that requires further investigation and analysis. Although total hip replacement is an extremely successful operation, the number of revision surgeries needed after this procedure is expected to continue to increase due to issues with both bone cement types and cementation techniques (depending on the producer). To conduct a comparative analysis, as a surgeon prepared the bone cement and introduced it in the body, this study’s team of researchers prepared three types of commercial bone cements with the samples mixed and placed them in specimens, following the timeline of the surgery. In order to evaluate the factors that influenced the chemical composition and structure of each bone cement sample under specific intraoperative conditions, analyses of the handling properties, mechanical properties, structure, and composition were carried out. The results show that poor handling can impede prosthesis–cement interface efficacy over time. Therefore, it is recommended that manual mixing be avoided as much as possible, as the manual preparation of the cement can sometimes lead to structural unevenness.

SiC/HfB2-based ceramic/SiC multilayer coating to protect C/C composites against oxidation at medium and high temperatures for long-life service

A dense SiC/HfB2-based ceramic/SiC multilayer coating was designed on C/C composites by a combined technique of pack cementation, slurry brushing-pressureless reaction sintering and chemical vapor deposition. The coating can protect C/C composites against oxidation at 1473 K for 544 h, 1573 K for 597 h and 1773 K for 382 h. Such good performance was ascribed to the synergistic oxidation resistance of three layers. The cracks were healed by the borosilicate glass generated from the oxidation of HfB2-based ceramic intermediate layer at medium temperatures, and covered by SiO2 glass produced from the oxidation of SiC outer layer at high temperatures.

Composite Resin Preheating Techniques for Cementation of Indirect Restorations.

Purpose Resin-based materials have been preheated by using different techniques and commercial devices. However, a consensus on the clinical protocol for cementing with preheated composite resins is lacking. The aim of this scoping review was to identify the different methods used for heating composite resins as used for cementing indirect adhesive restorations and to determine the benefits and limitations. Study Selection. A search was performed on PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane, Web of Science, Scopus, LIVIVO, and the nonpeer-reviewed literature database. Studies on preheating composite resins for cementing indirect restorations were included, with no restrictions on the type of study, year of publication, or language. The following data were extracted: preheating technique, the device used for preheating, preset temperature, and warming time. Results In total, 304 studies were identified. After removing duplicates, 270 articles were selected, and 14 articles were included in the final evaluation. Half of the included studies reported similar preheating techniques using the Calset device for composite resins. The temperatures of 54°C and 68°C were most frequently reported, with a mean warming time of 5 minutes. Conclusions Preheating composite resins for the cementation of indirect restorations reduces viscosity, but the material must be used promptly after removal from the device. Practical Implications. Different methodologies for preheating composite resins have been reported and used in clinical dental practice. To achieve good results and guide the clinician on use, the techniques for heating composite resins for cementation need to be standardized. Keeping the material warm until the restorative procedure, the thickness of the indirect restoration, and the composition of the composite resins can directly affect the outcome of the procedure.

Bonding Strength of Lithium Disilicate Adhesive Crowns with Different Occluso-Cervical Preparation Heights and Cement Types

The aim of this study was to evaluate if adhesion technology with CAD/CAM can compensate for the reduction of occluso cervical preparation heights using different types of dental cement. The de-bonding failure types were then assessed. Here, 72 caries-free extracted human premolar teeth were prepared to have a remaining occlusal height of two, three, and four mm. IPS e.max lithium disilicate CAD/CAM crowns were cemented with adhesive resin cement Panavia SA, self-adhesive resin cement, RelyX Unicem Aplicap, and zinc phosphate cement. The cementation techniques were based on the manufacturer’s instructions. After thermocycling, all samples were tested for tensile bond strength via an Instron machine. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with post hoc testing (P &lt; 0.05) was performed. The means TBS for the two, three, and four-mm OCHP groups were 2.72±0.69, 3.06±0.82, and 3.25±0.79.0 MPa; ARC, SARC, and ZPC were 3.41±0.51, 3.45±0.41, 2.08±0.35 MPa, respectively with significant differences in both. The mixed cement had failures in the resin cement groups. Failure was predominantly cohesive in the zinc phosphate group. Resin cement had the highest SBS values versus ZPC values when both bonded to lithium disilicate crowns with different occlusal heights. The failure of the adhesive to the crown and/or to the tooth were the highest for the four types of resin cement. Around 25% were cohesive failures with resin cement, but this was predominately adhesive in crowns in zinc phosphate regardless of the preparation heights.

Enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation utilizing fresh urine and calcium-rich zeolites

Enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation (EICP) is a biocementation technique that produces comparatively fewer carbon dioxide emissions than traditional cementation. However, the use of synthetic reagents for EICP is costly, and the process produces an ammonium byproduct that is a water pollutant. This study utilized fresh human urine as a source of urea and calcium-rich zeolites as an ammonium adsorbent and a source of calcium ions for the EICP cementation technique. Batch hydrolysis, adsorption, and biocementation experiments were conducted to determine the effects of zeolite type, zeolite form (i.e., exchangeable ion), ammonium adsorption, and calcium release. The results showed that calcium-rich chabazite adsorbed comparable ammonium ions and released 2.7-times more calcium ions on average than calcium-rich clinoptilolite; calcium-rich chabazite also released calcium ions in excess without the addition of calcium chloride in solution. Additionally, synthetic-fresh urine and real-fresh urine had comparable ammonium adsorption and calcium release trends. Finally, inclusion of a pre-hydrolysis step reduced the ammonium adsorption by 3.9-times; additionally, longer adsorption times led to CaCO3 precipitation outside of the sand column, which is an undesirable outcome for soil biocementation. Even with this limitation, the CaCO3 content of sand columns ranged from 0.48% to 0.92%, which signifies the potential of the proposed process for cementation, given a higher initial concentration of urea. The results from this work show the ability to use both a waste stream, human urine, and a naturally occurring material, zeolites, to greatly reduce the economic and environmental stressors of conventional soil binders for applications such as liquefaction mitigation (e.g., Portland cement) and dust suppression (e.g., synthetic polymers).