Purpose The purpose of this study is to investigate the performance and durability of commonly used construction and building materials when subjected to elevated temperatures. The research aims to understand the degradation behavior and assess key physical and mechanical properties post-fire exposure, which are crucial for designing thermally resilient and fire-safe structures. Design/methodology/approach This study evaluates six widely used masonry units – clay brick, fly ash brick, cement brick, autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) block, porotherm block and solid concrete block – under fire conditions based on International Organization for Standardization 834 standard fire curves. The materials were exposed to heating durations of 1 and 2 h. Parameters such as dry and wet density, water absorption, compressive strength, porosity, mass loss and residual strength were comprehensively analyzed before and after fire exposure. Findings The results reveal significant variation in fire performance across different materials. Clay bricks retained the highest residual strength (74.4%) and exhibited the lowest porosity increase (1.8%) after 2 h of heating, indicating superior fire resilience. Fly ash bricks, while initially strong (11.48 MPa), suffered a 47.7% strength loss post-fire. Cement bricks showed a high mass loss (35.7%) and strength reduction (37.6%), limiting their post-fire reuse. AAC blocks displayed the highest water absorption (26.2%) and porosity (8.75%), compromising their structural reliability after exposure. Porotherm blocks showed a balanced performance with moderate strength loss (27.6%) and good thermal stability, suggesting suitability for fire-prone environments. Solid blocks, though dense, experienced the greatest strength degradation (52.3%) and porosity increase (8.88%), indicating poor thermal durability. Originality/value The novelty of this work lies in its holistic experimental comparison of both traditional and modern masonry units under standardized fire conditions. By integrating mass loss, residual strength and porosity as post-fire durability indicators, the study offers valuable insights for material selection in fire-prone and safety-critical structures. These findings also serve as a foundation for sustainability assessment and life cycle-based decision-making in resilient construction.

Using Arundo donax as Agricultural and Industrial Waste as Expanded Polystyrene in the Production of Cement Bricks

Aluminium powder coating effluent with potassium hydroxide (KOH) were used in the geopolymerisation of coal fly ash (CFA), ferrochrome slag (FeCr) and gold mine tailings (GMT). In order to come up with a green synthesis route, curing was done at ambient conditions for 56 days. The synthesised geopolymers for CFA, FeCr and GMT were identified as CFA-GP, FeCr-GP and GMT-GP respectively. FeCr-GP, CFA-GP and GMT-GP had an unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of 25.5 MPa, 8.1 MPa and 6.1MPa after 28 days of curing using 6 M KOH. CFS-GP and FeCr-GP were effective in the stabilisation of heavy metals as the leachability of heavy metals was below allowable limits whilst GMT-GP was not effective. This was due to the presence of calcium silicate hydrate and calcium aluminate silicate hydrate in CFA-GP and FeCr-GP. These geopolymerisation products were absent in the microstructure of GMT-GP. The long-term use of CFA-GP and FeCr-GP did not pose any significant heavy metal pollution capability as the static leaching results were below the building material protocols whilst the use GMT-GP presented a significant environmental pollution threat. The use of FeCr-GP produced 270 kg CO2 per tonne of geopolymer resulting in a 19.4% reduction in carbon emissions as compared to the use of cement brick. Furthermore, more FeCr-GP had a 24 h water absorption rate of less than 9%. The geopolymerisation of CFA-GP and FeCr- GP with APCE can therefore be a method to reduce the pollution potential of these materials.

A pilot-scale reactor prototype was designed to produce hydrocarbons through the catalytic pyrolysis process of low-density polyethylene, thereby extending its life cycle and contributing to energy efficiency and sustainability. The reactor consists of a stainless-steel tank encased in a ceramic jacket with refractory cement and clay bricks. The tank, made of 304 stainless steel, ensures mechanical strength and efficient heat transfer to the reactor core. A spiral condenser was incorporated into a water tank to cool the vapors and recover the liquid oil. The insulating materials, ceramic, refractory cement and clay brick, demonstrated a high combined thermal resistance of 0.159 m2·K/W. Simulations and energy flow calculations demonstrated that heat is efficiently directed to the reactor core, reaching 350 °C with only 3000–3800 W, while the outside of the jacket remained close to 32 °C. These results confirm that the proposed design improves thermal efficiency and optimizes energy use for catalytic pyrolysis. The novelty of this design lies in its energy-efficient configuration, which can be replicated in rural regions worldwide due to the accessibility of its construction materials. This reactor was developed based on a smaller-scale model that previously yielded excellent results.

Abstract A major challenge in Malaysia’s facilities management (FM) is unsustainable construction waste, highlighting the need for technological conciliation. This study explores ceramic waste as an eco-friendly alternative in cement bricks. It evaluates compressive strength, compares ceramic-based bricks with conventional ones, and assesses construction industry acceptance. A total of 12 brick samples were made with 0%, 20%, 40%, and 60% ceramic waste and tested with three (3) curing times of 7, 14, and 28 days of curing. A survey was conducted among G7 contractors and ceramic factory operators in Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia. Results show that 20% ceramic waste yields the highest compressive strength after 28 days and meets construction industry standards. While strength decreases at higher waste levels, it remains acceptable. The findings confirm ceramic waste’s potential to enhance brick performance and reduce environmental impact. Positive feedback from industry stakeholders supports its market viability. The study also suggests integrating this approach into building information modelling (BIM) during the pre-construction stage for more sustainable construction practices in Malaysia.

Energy-saving potential in buildings by cement bricks made with date seed aggregates and Arundo donax fiber with thermal and mechanical assessment

Fabrication of grey cement brick fuel cell (GC-BFC) using agricultural waste rice husk ash for generating power: A novel approach for smart cities

ABSTRACT This study investigates the concentrations of toxic elements in blood samples collected from workers in various building material factories in Sulaymaniyah, Iraq, and compares them with a control group. The samples included 30 workers aged 21–64 years and 25 controls aged 20–70 years, analysed using X-ray fluorescence (XRF). The workers were employed in cement, red brick, concrete block, gypsum, marble, gypsum board, stone crushing, tiles, and behaton factories. Average concentrations of toxic elements in workers’ blood followed the order Br (133.71 ± 1.70 ppb) > Pb (36.13 ± 1.57 ppb) > Cu (32.70 ± 1.70 ppb) > Ni (29.45 ± 1.77 ppb) > Cd (27.15 ± 1.86 ppb) > Cr (22.66 ± 2.00 ppb), compared with controls in the order Br (33.92 ± 5.48 ppb) > Pb (10.64 ± 1.15 ppb) > Cu (4.80 ± 0.76 ppb) > Ni (3.76 ± 0.66 ppb) > Cd (2.60 ± 0.65 ppb) > Cr (1.34 ± 0.57 ppb), with all differences statistically significant (p < 0.05). Higher concentrations were observed in males and smokers, and levels increased with age and work duration, particularly for Pb and Cd. Cement and red brick factories recorded the highest concentrations for most elements. These findings indicate that occupational exposure in building material factories elevates blood concentrations of toxic elements and underscore the need for targeted health protection measures, routine biomonitoring and strengthened workplace safety practices.

Rice straw is one of the natural residues of rice crop or paddy material and is an organic material. Globally, rice or paddy straw is the third largest agricultural residue after sugarcane bagasse and maize straw. Approximately 80% rice is produced by Southeast Asian countries in the world. So, every year, large quantity of paddy or rice straw produced as a by-product. Open-field burning is practiced in most of countries as well as in India, because Farmers needs immediate vacant fields for sowing of next crop and no other alternatives of rice straw. Rice straw an organic material is available in bulk quantities to most of the farmers. At crop maturity, about 40 % of the nitrogen (N), 80 to 85 % of the potassium (K), 30 to 35 % of the phosphorus (P), and 40 to 50 % of the sulphur (S) remains in rice plant parts. Generally, rice straw burned in situ or removed form field, spread or piled in field, or incorporated in the soil. The open field burning of residue contributes to harmful greenhouse gases such as NO2, SO2, N2O, CH4, carbon monoxide, particulate matter and hydrocarbon in atmosphere. The crucial purpose of this paper is to offer environment friendly alternatives to rice straw instead of open field burning such as combustion material, power generation, mushroom cultivation, bedding material for cattle, nutrition in the soil, pellet making, bio-ethanol, bio-gas, bio-char, cardboard and composite board, acoustic material, packaging materials, 3D objects, cement bricks, production of bio-composite and handmade paper.

A holistic approach and frame work to optimized fly ash cement brick production integrating technical, life cycle cost and environmental life cycle assessment

Recycling spent mushroom substrate as a partial fine aggregate substitute in cement brick Production: Evaluating mechanical, durability, and thermal insulation properties

Building materials are porous and interact with moisture in the ambient air through sorption phenomena. However, under real world using conditions, the temperature of these materials varies constantly. The problem is that this temperature variation influences the materials' ability to adsorb or desorb moisture, which can distort the assessment of their hygrothermal performance. It is therefore necessary to analyze and model the effect of temperature on these isotherms in order to better predict the behavior of materials under real conditions. The aim of this study is to carry out experimental analysis and modelling of the sorption isotherms of construction materials, in particular cement bricks. The equilibrium desorption and adsorption water contents of the materials were determined at 35°C, 40°C and 50°C using the static gravimetric method. Equilibrium was obtained between 28 and 30 days for desorption and between 21 and 27 days for adsorption at all three temperatures. The results show that the isotherms obtained have a sigmoidal shape and are classified according to International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) in the category of type II isotherms. The effect of temperature on sorption isotherms was evaluated. The moisture content of the materials decreases with increasing temperature. The effect of hysteresis is observed for all three temperatures. The experimental points were approximated by the GAB (Guggenheim - Anderson - Boer), Henderson and Oswin models to describe all the isotherms for all the ranges of relative humidity and temperature used. A comparison of these three models shows that the Henderson model is the most appropriate for describing the sorption isotherms of our materials.

Background: Given the growing concern and awareness regarding sustainable building material and environmental issue, Stabilized Earth Brick (SEB) gives the view of energy efficiency and the cost reduction of materials. And due to the limited supply of sand for cement blocks/bricks and the price of cement to be used for construction as well as the weak bricks and expensive nature of importing fire bricks in our locality. Materials: This research was aimed at stabilizing earth from a pit at BANGSHIE with eucalyptus ash to be used for construction which was achieve by sitting apart the soil at a depth of (50-100) cm from the earth surface and some Geotechnical studies carried out. Results: The studies shows that the laterite was a clay material composed of 0.6% gravel, and 14.7% sand, and the optimal dry density of 1.608 and water content 21.2% from the proctor test. The Atterberg limits test has also reveal that the soil had liquid limit of 60.0, plastic limit of 50.0 and the Plasticity index of 10.0 from which our soil was classify as A-5 using the universal soil classification system. Fifty-six (56) samples with 0 %. 5%, 10 %, 15 %, and 20 % of eucalyptus ash were moulded and the compressive strength, and total water absorption test carried out which revealed that the more the percentage of eucalyptus wood ash (EWA) the more the strengths and water absorption. With the maximum compressive strength of 1.56 MPa, and water absorption of 10.04% after 28 days. Conclusion: From these results, it was seen that for works in non-humid environment the percentage of EWA should be 20% and are economical as per using other construction materials such as the sand, cement and sundry brick.

This study investigates the use of gypsum waste from civil construction as a partial substitute for cement in soil–cement formulations, aiming to produce eco-friendly bricks aligned with circular economy principles. Formulations were prepared using a 1:8 cement–soil ratio, with gypsum replacing cement in proportions ranging from 5% to 40%. The raw materials were characterized in terms of chemical composition, crystalline phases, plasticity, and thermal behavior. Specimens, molded by uniaxial pressing into cylindrical bodies and cured for either 7 or 28 days, were evaluated for compressive strength, water absorption, durability, and microstructure. Water absorption remained below 20% in all samples, with an average value of 16.20%. Compressive strength after 7 days exhibited a slight reduction with increasing gypsum content, ranging from 16.36 MPa (standard formulation) to 13.74 MPa (40% gypsum), all meeting the quality standards. After 28 days of curing, the formulation containing 10% gypsum achieved the highest compressive strength (26.7 MPa), surpassing the reference sample (25.2 MPa). Mass loss during wetting–drying cycles remained within acceptable limits for formulations incorporating up to 20% gypsum. Notably, samples with 5% and 10% gypsum demonstrated superior mechanical performance, while the 20% formulation showed performance comparable to the standard formulation. These findings indicate that replacing up to 20% of cement with gypsum waste is a technically and environmentally viable approach, supporting sustainable development, circular economy, and reduction of construction-related environmental impacts.

Sago fine waste bricks (SFWB) were cement bricks containing sago fine waste (SFW) as a new building material in the construction industry. SFW was utilized to make five brick mixes with partial cement replacement percentages of 2%, 4%, 6%, 8%, and 10% that underwent testing and comparison with control bricks. The mortar mix had a 1:3 ratio, which was consistent with Malaysian brick production regulations. All the specimens had a water-cement ratio of 0.5 and had been cured for 28 days. This work aimed to investigate experimentally the effects SFW had on the strength, thermal, and acoustic properties of mixed cement bricks. According to the results, raising the proportion of SFW decreased the brick's value strength while lengthening the curing procedure increased the brick's strength. However, it complied with the standards for load-bearing constructions. According to Malaysian standard MS1933: Part 1:2007, all bricks satisfied class 1, 2, and 3 load-bearing bricks standards. SFWB had a thermal conductivity of 0.09 to 0.13 W/mK, where the value of heat conductivity was less than standards BS EN 12524, qualifying SFWB as a superior thermal insulator. Samples with higher SFW replacements exhibited higher sound absorption coefficients compared to samples with lower SFW replacements. When the coefficient was less than 0.3, the brick with a lower SFW replacement could not be used in high-frequency conditions. A brick with a coefficient of less than 0.3 absorbed and reflected the sound wave, according to ISO 11654:1997. Based on the results of thermal and acoustic tests, it could be concluded that SFWB were not good sound absorbers but were good heat insulators and suitable for construction in countries with an equatorial climate, such as Malaysia. Overall, SFW had the potential as a novel pozzolanic material in creating more sustainably made bricks that corresponded to the Sustainable Development Goals

This study examines the efficiency of the Simplex Method in solving transportation problems related to the Abna Al-Mashat Cement Brick Factory. It focuses on optimizing the transportation of raw materials, such as gravel, from quarries to production units, which is crucial for reducing operational costs. A range of quantitative methods, including the Least Cost Method, Northwest Corner Method, and Vogel's Approximation Method, were employed to compare their effectiveness with the Simplex Method. The study aims to translate the problem from an economic formulation into a mathematical model, enabling the use of the Simplex Method for efficient resolution. Data on transportation costs, production capacity, and distances between quarries and production centers were analyzed. The results indicated that the Simplex Method provides a cost-effective solution while achieving a balance between supply and demand. The study highlights the significance of utilizing quantitative methods in transportation decision-making, contributing to improved operational efficiency and cost reduction. It recommends adopting the Simplex Method as a primary tool for transportation management in production enterprises.

Understanding the soil thermal properties (STPs) are essential for managing soil thermal regions under different land uses patterns. Therefore, this study focused on measuring field STPs and the physical properties of soils across different land use patterns (football pitch (FP), abattoir site (AS), dumpsite (DS), and cement brick making (BM) in basement complex (Odeda) and cretaceous sedimentary formation (Sagamu) in Ogun State, Nigeria. Thermal properties were measured in situ using KD2 Pro Thermal Properties Analyzer while soil physical parameters were determined using standard laboratory techniques. The results revealed that the highest mean thermal conductivity(λs) values observed in the basement and sedimentary formations were 1.53 and 1.98 W/mK, recorded in DS and FP, respectively. In terms of specific heat capacity (CS), the maximum and minimum mean values of 3.93 and 1.49 MJ/mK were recorded in DS and BM within the basement complex lithology. Additionally, the highest and lowest thermal admittance ( μs) values of 3.36 and 1.71 mm2/s, along with soil moisture contents (MC) of 51.08% and 26.28%, were observed in FP and BM, respectively, within the basement complex area. However, the sedimentary area exhibited the opposite trend. The mean thermal resistivity (TR) values for FP, AS and BM in the sedimentary formation, as well as for DS in the basement complex, were within the recommended threshold (90 °C cm/W) for safe telecommunication signals and positioning of oil and gas conduits. The regression models revealed that the double-log model outperformed both the pair linear and semi-log models for predicting λs at the two geological formations, achieving an R2 value of 100% and significant F-values. The results revealed that nearly all the soil thermal characteristics were, significantly influenced by lithology and land management practices. The findings of this study will assist land users to make best choice of appropriate land management practices for sustainable agriculture and environmental preservation.

Objective: This study aims to conduct a review of technologies and patents related to the production of sustainable soil-cement bricks incorporating waste, with the goal of mapping key technological trends in this field. Theoretical Framework: This work is grounded in concepts of sustainability in civil construction and technological innovation, particularly focused on the reuse of waste in the production of alternative construction materials. It considers principles of sustainable development and the importance of intellectual property protection as an incentive for innovation, based on refined and up-to-date literature in the field. Method: The adopted methodology consisted of an exploratory documentary research focused on the analysis of patents available in the Espacenet database. English descriptors such as "soil-cement," "eco-brick," "brick," "block," "residue," and "waste" were used. From this search, the ten entities with the highest number of patent filings related to sustainable bricks with waste incorporation were identified and their main technological contributions analyzed. Results and Discussion: The results showed that patents are concentrated in sections B, C, and E of the IPC and CPC, focusing on industrial processes and construction materials. Brazil showed low representativeness compared to other emerging countries, indicating the need for greater investment in R&amp;D. The analysis highlighted technological trends and opportunities to expand the use of waste in eco-friendly bricks. Research Implications: The implications of this study cover both academic and productive sectors, providing support for researchers, entrepreneurs, and policymakers interested in sustainable solutions for the construction industry. Originality/Value: This research offers a systematic overview of innovations and global trends in soil-cement bricks with waste, based on patent data. Its originality lies in the articulation of sustainability, technology, and intellectual property, contributing to future investigations and sustainable development initiatives in the construction sector.

ABSTRACT The construction sector's rapid growth has significantly increased the demand for sustainable and high-performance building materials. Cement, a primary construction binder, contributes approximately 5–8% of global CO₂ emissions. To address this environmental challenge, this study investigates the mechanical performance and environmental viability of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC), alongside the fabrication and testing of fly ash-based cement bricks. OPC and PPC concretes were cast with M35 design mix, and their compressive strengths were evaluated after 3, 7, and 28 days of curing. The results showed that OPC exhibited superior early-age strength, achieving a maximum compressive strength of 43.02 N/mm² at 28 days, whereas PPC attained a peak value of 39.02 N/mm², demonstrating competitive long-term performance. With better workability (slump value: 98 mm) and compaction factor (0.98). Additionally, three types of fly ash bricks were cast with increasing fly ash content (20%, 35%, and 50%) by weight, maintaining a fixed cement ratio. These bricks were tested for compressive strength, water absorption, soundness, efflorescence, and structural integrity. The best-performing mix (35% fly ash) achieved a compressive strength of 7.2 N/mm² and water absorption below 12%, meeting IS:3495 standards for non-load-bearing applications. The results confirm that PPC is a more sustainable alternative to OPC in long-term structural applications, and fly ash bricks offer an eco-friendly, cost-effective substitute for traditional clay bricks, supporting the circular use of industrial by-products in civil infrastructure. Keywords: Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC), fly ash bricks, compressive strength, water absorption, sustainable construction materials

Recently, radiation pollution has become a serious problem in which microwave radiation leads to various issues, such as health problems in humans. To address this issue, anti-microwave organic cement bricks were designed and fabricated. This study investigates the effectiveness of biomass used as absorbent materials when combined with cement to eliminate microwave radiation. Biomass materials that were indicated in this study were fine sawdust, rice husk, and coconut husk. The anti-microwave organic cement brick was designed in size of 216 mm length x 103 mm width x 65 mm thickness which is almost the same as commercial sand brick, 200 mm length x 100 mm width x 60 mm thickness. CST Microwave Studio Suite software was used to obtain the simulation results of the designed absorber. The free-space arch reflectivity measurement method was used to investigate the absorption performance of the designed anti-microwave organic cement brick in the frequency range of 1 to 12 GHz. This study evaluates the absorption performance of designed anti-microwave organic cement brick using commercial sand brick as benchmarks. The result shows that the organic cement brick which uses 20 % fine sawdust, 20 % rice husk, and 20 % coconut husk has the potential as an anti-microwave material that can reach a higher absorption performance of up to –44.36 dB compared to the commercial sand brick which only reaches absorption performance at -12.74 dB.