Carnivore Surveys Research Articles

Determining the Effectiveness and Usefulness of Three Community-Led Carnivore Survey Types to Wildlife Management in the Nyae Nyae Conservancy, Namibia

Determining the Effectiveness and Usefulness of Three Community-Led Carnivore Survey Types to Wildlife Management in the Nyae Nyae Conservancy, Namibia

Effectiveness of attractants and bait for Iberian wolf detection: captivity-based and free-ranging trials

Monitoring large carnivores requires substantial effort, which is why indirect methodologies such as camera trapping with attractants or baits are commonly employed. The Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) is one of the top predators in the Iberian Peninsula, and monitoring its packs is essential to understand its distribution and mitigate conflicts arising from livestock predation. We performed a captivity-based study evaluating the effectiveness of five attractants (beef extract, cadaverine, Fatty Acid Scent (FAS), lynx urine and valerian extract) on wolf detection. To accomplish this objective, Jacobs selectivity index and generalized linear models were employed to assess the attractiveness and induced behaviour of each attractant. Subsequently, the three most effective attractants, combined or not with a bait, were tested in the field and analyzed using generalized linear mixed models. The five attractants tested elicited different behavioural responses in the wolves in captivity, including smelling, rubbing, rolling, marking and licking. Among the captive wolves, cadaverine, FAS and lynx urine emerged as the top three preferred attractants. In the field tests with these three attractants cadaverine remained the most preferred option. The inclusion of bait did not have any significant effect on the wolf’s visitation rates. Our results show that employing species-specific attractants can significantly improve the efficiency of carnivore surveys conducted in the field. Specifically, cadaverine was the most effective attractant for wild Iberian wolves. Consequently, the careful selection of an appropriate attractant becomes crucial to attain the precise objectives of the study, such as camera trapping, bait deployment or DNA sampling.

Do carnivore surveys match reports of carnivore presence by pastoralists? A case of the eastern Serengeti ecosystem

Human-carnivore encounters are common where humans and wild carnivores share the same landscape. The frequency of such encounters gives insight regarding carnivore density and might correlate with human-carnivore conflict incidences. We interviewed livestock owners in the eastern Serengeti ecosystem and recorded reported carnivore presence and relative abundance. We simultaneously conducted a carnivore survey to assess the potential variability of reported carnivore presence that was recorded during the surveys. The playback surveys attracted 9 lions (Panthera leo), 88 spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) and 47 black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas schmidti) to 12 call-in stations which were resurveyed three times (36 playbacks in total). Reported encounters with lions, leopards (Panthera pardus), cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus), spotted hyenas, African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) and jackals were higher closer to the Serengeti National Park (SNP). Data from carnivore surveys were positively correlated with what people reported in questionnaires. These results indicate that local reports of encounters with wild carnivores may act as an important indicator of carnivore presence. Combining observational data through surveys with data reported by local people in areas where humans and wild carnivores coexist may improve existing data on carnivore abundance and distribution in such areas.

Influence of lure choice and survey duration on scent stations for carnivore surveys

AbstractNoninvasive, camera‐based, scent station surveys have become a common approach to estimate population parameters for mammalian carnivores. Many carnivores are particularly sensitive to olfactory cues; and, as such, the quality and quantity of odor attractant used during surveys can significantly affect the accuracy and precision of the survey. Additionally, survey length is also an important consideration because many mammalian predators are highly mobile and elusive in nature. Using scent station surveys in autumn 2013 and 2014 on the Savannah River Site, Aiken, South Carolina, USA, we tested the effects of 5 lures: fatty acid, fish oil, synthetic fermented egg, beaver castor, and skunk essence on visitation rates, visitation probability, and latency to visitation of multiple predator species. We also estimated occupancy probability for 2 carnivore species using different survey lengths to determine the effect of survey period on the precision of occupancy estimates. We found that skunk essence had greater visitation probability and visits than other lures evaluated. Species‐specific bait‐preference models revealed that raccoons (Procyon lotor) were more likely to visit skunk essence, and coyotes (Canis latrans) were less likely to visit fish oil as compared with fatty acid. Latency to visitation ranged from 104.7 to 112.1 hours and did not vary among scents. Longer survey durations resulted in more precise estimates of occupancy and detection probability. Our results suggest a wide range of scents commonly used for carnivore capture may perform as well as, or better than, fatty acid for noninvasive carnivore surveys. Further, study designs should carefully consider the duration of scent‐station surveys depending on the level of precision desired in estimates of occupancy and detection probability. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.

Status of Pacific Martens (Martes caurina) on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington

Pacific martens (Martes caurina) remain common in montane regions of the Pacific states, yet their distribution and status on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington, is uncertain. Between 1968–2008, six reliable marten detections exist; a dead juvenile female (2008) indicates martens were reproducing on the Peninsula within the last decade. To assess the status of martens, we describe carnivore surveys conducted from 1991–2008 (n = 223 stations). Additionally, we present results from three survey efforts we conducted from 2013–2016 (n = 747 stations). Although a suite of carnivore species was detected, surveys from 1991–2008 failed to detect either martens or fishers. Surveys from 2013–2016 detected reintroduced fishers, and resulted in two marten detections near Mt. Olympus, 4 km apart. A marten was photographed opportunistically near Mt. Cruiser in 2015, 44 km from Mt. Olympus. Altogether, nine reliable detections of Pacific martens were obtained between 1968 and 2016, including three since 2008. Evidence suggests martens are absent from the lower elevation regions they once occupied and occur at exceedingly low densities at higher elevations. To understand the trend in marten populations on the Peninsula and develop appropriate conservation strategies, additional broad- and fine-scale surveys using detection devices that enable the genetic identification of individuals will be needed.

Seeking efficiency with carnivore survey methods: A case study with elusive martens

ABSTRACTObtaining reliable information on species distributions is often the first step in conservation. Distribution information can be used to focus survey efforts to estimate population size and examine drivers of occupancy or other population parameters. We compared detection rates and survey costs for 2 techniques (remote cameras and scent detection teams) used to evaluate distribution of a rare carnivore, Humboldt subspecies of Pacific marten (Martes caurina humboldtensis). We used remote cameras at randomly placed sites in coastal Oregon, USA, to compare camera set type (baited, unbaited), bait height (<0.5 m, 1.37 m), and bait types (chicken and lure, cat food) for a 21‐day survey period during winter (27 Jan–12 Apr) and summer (04 Jul–14 Oct) 2015. When a marten was detected, we completed an additional survey within 25 m. Scent detection teams (human handler and dog) performed area‐constrained searches for scat deposited. We used a Bayesian occupancy model to compare detection probabilities for baited camera treatments. We detected martens at 26 sites, and offset stations detected martens at 15 of 24 sites (62.5%). Survey‐level detection probability for martens (the probability of detecting ≥1 marten during a survey) was high for the camera survey during summer and winter (estimates ranged from 60% to 99% and 33% to 82%, respectively), and similar for all treatments. We surveyed 50 sites with both remote cameras and scent detection teams 25 April–25 May 2015. Of 33 sites with ≥1 marten detection, 36.4% of units had a marten detected only by scent detection teams, 30.3% only by remote camera, and 33.3% by both techniques. When the objective was marten detection, survey costs were less for scent detection teams. For identifying individual martens and their sex, cameras paired with hair snares were more cost‐efficient. Scent detection teams provided a complementary method to baited remote cameras for assessing distribution. Using multiple techniques provided an opportunity to quantify limitations of survey methods. © 2018 The Wildlife Society.

Using dogs to find cats: detection dogs as a survey method for wide‐ranging cheetah

AbstractRapid global large carnivore declines make evaluations of remaining populations critical. Yet landscape‐scale evaluations of presence, abundance and distribution are difficult, as many species are wide‐ranging, occur only at low densities and are elusive. Insufficient information‐gathering tools for many large carnivore species compounds these challenges. Specially trained detection dogs have demonstrated effectiveness for carnivore surveys, but are untested on extremely sparse, wide‐ranging species, such as cheetah Acinonyx jubatus. In this study, we conducted the first rigorous cheetah survey using detection dogs in a key transboundary area in the remote Liuwa–Mussuma Transfrontier Conservation Area (TFCA) in Western Zambia. We proposed to (1) evaluate the effectiveness of detection dog versus spoor surveys in detecting cheetah presence; (2) extract and analyze DNA from scat samples to estimate minimum population size and genetic effective population size; (3) determine the extent of cheetah occurrence in the unprotected transboundary corridor. Two detection dog teams surveyed 2432 km2 containing 74 randomly located transects in the transfrontier area. Twenty‐seven cheetah scats were detected and confirmed by genetic analysis, while no cheetah spoor was detected, clearly demonstrating the superiority of detection dogs in detecting cheetah presence. Combining scat samples with opportunistically collected samples, we estimated 17–19 cheetahs, an effective population size of 8–14 and a density of 5.9–6.6 per 1000 km2. Cheetah utilized key transfrontier areas outside of the national park; however, because utilization appears low, improved connectivity and protection for these areas are critical. Approximately one third of Africa's estimated cheetah resides in protected areas, with 87% in transboundary areas. Our study demonstrates the efficacy of detection dog survey methods in providing information on cheetah across large landscapes. It will have particular value in areas where other survey means may be impossible, such as TFCAs, where size, remoteness and lack of accessibility often make traditional survey methods difficult or cost prohibitive.

A pilot study to survey the carnivore community in the hyper-arid environment of South Sinai mountains

Carnivores are one of the taxa most affected by habitat fragmentation and human persecution; as a result, most carnivore species are declining; for this reason monitoring changes in carnivore population is paramount to plan effective conservation programs. Despite being one of the most threatened habitat, arid environment are often neglected and the carnivore species living in this environment are generally poorly studied.We conducted a pilot study to survey the carnivore guild in the St Katherine Protectorate, the largest Egyptian national park and a hotspot for biodiversity and conservation in an arid environments. Three species were detected using both camera trapping and morphological identification of scats: Red fox, Striped hyena and Arabian wolf, while through genetic analysis we were able to confirm the presence of Blandford fox as well. Arabian wolf appeared to be the most elusive and rarer species and should be a conservation priority.We also provide guidelines for a monitoring program: we estimated that a survey period of 8–10 weeks would be enough to detect foxes and hyenas with a 95% probability, but it would take at least 26 weeks to detect the presence of wolves. This is the first comprehensive carnivore survey in South Sinai and provides an important baseline for future studies in this unique hyper-arid environment at the conjunction between the African and Eurasian continents.

Optimization of sampling effort in carnivore surveys based on signs: A regional-scale study in a Mediterranean area

Understanding species distribution is central to ecology, evolution and wildlife conservation. However, detecting species presence in the field may be challenging, especially for scarce, elusive and wide-ranging animals such as mammalian carnivores. Here we undertook a large-scale methodological study to assess scat sampling effort required to detect five mesocarnivore species in a Spanish Mediterranean area. Our goals were to: (1) evaluate the optimal effort (i.e. transect length) needed to detect scats of each species; and (2) examine if this sampling effort depends on environmental factors. First, we constructed “curves of first detection” for each carnivore species and evaluated the most cost-effective sampling effort. Second, we used Generalized Linear Mixed Models (GLMMs) to relate the transect length to first detection of each species in each positive transect to a comprehensive set of environmental variables. Our results suggested that sampling effort in this study, namely the transect length needed to detect a given species, can be substantially shortened for two species (red fox and stone marten) with a relatively low reduction in the information on their presence. The most efficient scenario corresponded to a transect length of 1.5km, where red foxes and stone martens would be detected in 72.95 and 65.43% of the positive transects, respectively. However, different sampling approaches would be advisable for the remaining species. We also found that the sampling effort was weakly affected by environmental constraints. Our study may contribute to the design of more efficient scat-based carnivore sampling methodologies elsewhere. In particular, we propose that our results can be successfully extrapolated to other areas of the Iberian Peninsula with close abundances of the species considered and similar environmental characteristics.

Spatial and temporal structure of a mesocarnivore guild in midwestern north America

Carnivore guilds play a vital role in ecological communities by cascading trophic effects, energy and nutrient transfer, and stabilizing or destabilizing food webs. Consequently, the structure of carnivore guilds can be critical to ecosystem patterns. Body size is a crucial influence on intraguild interactions, because it affects access to prey resources, effectiveness in scramble competition, and vulnerability to intraguild predation. Coyotes (Canis latrans), bobcats(Lynx rufus),grayfoxes(Urocyoncinereoargenteus),raccoons (Procyonlotor), redfoxes(Vulpesvulpes), and striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) occur sympatrically throughout much of North America and overlap in resourceuse,indicatingpotential forinterspecificinteractions. Although muchisknownabouttheautecology ofthe individual species separately, little is known about factors that facilitate coexistence and how interactions within this guild influence distribution, habitat use, and temporal activity of the smaller carnivores. To assess how habitat autecology and interspecific interactions affect the structure of this widespread carnivore guild, we conducted a large-scale, non-invasive carnivore survey using an occupancy modeling framework. We deployed remote cameras during 3-week surveys to detect carnivores at 1,118 camera locations in 357 2.6-km 2 sections (3-4 cameras/section composing a cluster) in the 16 southernmost counties of Illinois (16,058 km 2 ) during January-April, 2008-2010. We characterized microhabitat at each camera location and landscape-level habitat features for each camera cluster. In a multistage approach, we used information-theoretic methods to evaluate competing models for detection, species-specific habitat occupancy, multispecies co-occupancy, and multiseason (colonization and extinction) occupancy dynamics. We developed occupancy models for each species to represent hypothesized effects of anthropogenic features, prey availability, landscape complexity, and vegetative land cover. We quantified temporal activity patterns of each carnivore species based on their frequency of appearance in photographs. Further, we assessed whether smaller carnivores shifted their diel activity patterns in response to the presence of potential competitors. Of the 102,711 photographs of endothermic animals, we recorded photographs of bobcats (n ¼412 photographs), coyotes (n ¼1,397), gray foxes (n ¼546), raccoons (n ¼40,029), red foxes (n ¼149), and striped skunks (n ¼2,467). Bobcats were active primarily during crepuscular periods, and their activity was reduced with precipitation and higher temperatures. The probability of detecting bobcats decreased after a bobcat photograph was recorded, suggesting avoidance of remote cameras after the first encounter. Across southern Illinois, bobcat occupancyatthecamera-locationandcamera-clusterscale(b clocal ¼0.24 � 0.04,cameracluster b ccluster ¼0.75 � 0.06) was negatively influenced by anthropogenic features and infrastructure. Bobcats had high rates of colonization (b ¼0.86) and low rates of extinction (be ¼0.07), suggesting an expanding population, but agricultural land was less likely to be colonized. Nearly all camera clusters were occupied by coyotes (b ccluster ¼0.95 � 0.03). At the local scale, coyote occupancy (blocal ¼0.58 � 0.03) was higher in hardwood forest stands with open understories than in other areas. Compared to coyotes, gray foxes occupied a smaller portion of the study area (b clocal ¼0.13 � 0.01, bcluster ¼0.29 � 0.03)atallscales.Atthescaleofthecameracluster,grayfoxoccupancywashighestinfragmentedareas withhighproportionsofforest,andpositivelyrelatedtoanthropogenicfeatureswithin100%home-rangebuffers.Red foxesoccupiedasimilarproportionofthestudyareaasgrayfoxes( blocal ¼0.12 � 0.02, b ccluster ¼0.26 � 0.04)butwere morecloselyassociatedwithanthropogenicfeatures.Onlyanthropogenicfeaturemodelsmadeupthe90%confidence set at all scales of analysis for red foxes. Extinction probabilities at the scale of the camera cluster were higher for both gray foxes (be ¼0.57) and red foxes (be ¼0.35) than their colonization rates (gray fox b ¼0.16, red fox b ¼0.06), suggestingbothspeciesmaybedeclininginsouthernIllinois.Stripedskunksoccupiedalargeportionofthestudyarea ( b clocal ¼0.47 � 0.01, b ccluster ¼0.79 � 0.03)andwereassociatedprimarilywithanthropogenicfeatures.Raccoonswere

Assessing the homogeneity of individual scat detection probability using the bait-marking method on a monitored free-ranging carnivore population

Estimates of terrestrial carnivore populations are often based on information derived from scat collected during trail-based sampling. However, few attempts have been made to verify the homogeneity of individual scat detection probability because wild carnivore species seldom afford this opportunity. The present study aims to test this assumption on a free-ranging population of domestic cats (Felis silvestris catus), as this carnivore has ranging behaviours close enough to its wild ancestor to provide useful information for wild carnivore surveys. The homogeneity of scat detection probability was investigated using the bait-marking method on a previously monitored population of 142 individuals, composed of free-roaming house cats (43 %) and farm cats (57 %). An 11-km trail was walked twice a week over a 58-day period to individually feed cats with marked baits and to collect their faeces. From the 8,236 faeces expected to be dropped by cats over that period, less than 2 % were collected, and from the 215 baits distributed to 44 cats (31 % of the population), only 13.5 % of the expected marked faeces were found. Detectability of faeces producers did not differ between free-roaming house cats and farm cats, but faeces detection probability was linked with sex and reproductive status. This study, conducted on a monitored population of free-roaming carnivores, stresses that it is possible to make only cautious conclusions about population estimates supported by trail-based scat samplings, since only a few individuals may be responsible for many scat detections.

Brown hyaenas on roads: Estimating carnivore occupancy and abundance using spatially auto-correlated sign survey replicates

Carnivore survey protocols that properly address spatial sampling and detectability issues are seldom feasible at a landscape-scale. This limits knowledge of large-scale patterns in distribution, abundance and their underlying determinants, hindering conservation of globally threatened carnivore populations. Occupancy analysis of data from logistically efficient sign surveys along consecutive road segments (spatially auto-correlated replicates) offers a potential solution. We adapted and applied this newly-developed method over 62,979 km 2 of human-modified land in South Africa. Our aims were to (1) generate unbiased estimates of brown hyaena occupancy and abundance (2) investigate two suspected determinants of occupancy using a combination of biological and socio-economic sampling techniques, and (3) use simulations to evaluate the effort required for abundance and occupancy estimates with acceptable bias, precision and power. Brown hyaena occupancy was estimated at 0.748 (±SE 0.1), and estimated overall density in agricultural land (0.15/100 km 2, ±SE 0.08) was an order of magnitude lower than in protected areas. Positive attitudes to carnivores and presence of wildlife farms exerted strong positive effects on occupancy, so changes in these factors may well exert monotonic impacts on local metapopulation status. Producing reliable occupancy and abundance estimates would require ⩾6 replicates and ⩾12 replicates per site respectively. Detecting 50% and 30% declines in brown hyaena occupancy with adequate power would require five annual surveys at ⩾65 sites and ⩾125 sites respectively. Our results suggest that protocols based on spatially auto-correlated sign survey replicates could be used to monitor carnivore populations at large, and possibly even country-wide spatial scales.

Noninvasive Survey Methods for Carnivores

The status of many carnivore populations is of growing concern to scientists and conservationists, making the need for data pertaining to carnivore distribution, abundance, and habitat use ever more pressing. Recent developments in research techniques - those that minimize disturbance to the animal being studied - have resulted in a greatly expanded toolbox for the wildlife practitioner.Presented in a straightforward and readable style, Noninvasive Survey Methods for Carnivores is a comprehensive guide for wildlife researchers who seek to conduct carnivore surveys using the most up-to-date scientific approaches. Twenty-five experts from throughout North America discuss strategies for implementing surveys across a broad range of habitats, providing input on survey design, sample collection, DNA and endocrine analyses, and data analysis. Photographs from the field, line drawings, and detailed case studies further illustrate on-the-ground application of the survey methods discussed.Coupled with cutting-edge laboratory and statistical techniques, which are also described in the book, noninvasive survey methods are efficient and effective tools for sampling carnivore populations. Noninvasive Survey Methods for Carnivores allows practitioners to carefully evaluate a diversity of detection methods and to develop protocols specific to their survey objectives, study area, and species of interest. It is an essential resource for anyone interested in the study of carnivores, from scientists engaged in primary research to agencies or organizations requiring carnivore detection data to develop management or conservation plans.

Comparative Efficacy of Sign Surveys, Spotlighting and Audio Playbacks in a Landscape-Scale Carnivore Survey

Many carnivores are difficult and labour-intensive to detect, often leading to prohibitively high effort and cost in large-scale surveys. However, such studies provide Information that is Important for effective management and conservation. Here, we evaluate the suitability of three survey methods for landscape-scale multi-species monitoring. We compare sign surveys, spotlighting, and audio playbacks in terms of detection efficiency, precision, effort, and cost. Sign surveys out-performed the other methods in all comparison criteria, although supplementary methods were needed for some species and sites. We found that using established analysis techniques, robust landscape-scale abundance estimates would require unrealistically high effort and cost. Occupancy estimation required considerably lower sample sizes and was therefore more economical. We conclude that sign-based occupancy estimates constitute a versatile and efficient option for future large-scale, multi-species carnivore surveys.

Does riparian habitat condition influence mammalian carnivore abundance in Mediterranean ecosystems?

The severe loss or degradation of riparian habitats has led to their impoverishment and impaired function, which may have severe consequences on both the riparian habitats themselves and their associated biota, including mammalian carnivores. We selected 70 riparian habitat reaches to evaluate the condition of the riparian habitats in southern Portugal and their use by carnivores. These sites were assessed for riparian condition using the stream visual assessment protocol (SVAP) and surveyed for carnivore presence along the riparian zones and across the surrounding matrix landscape, both in the wet (winter) and the dry (summer) season. Results show that carnivore surveys adjacent to riparian habitats consistently had significantly higher species richness than the matrix habitats, in both sampling seasons. Carnivore relative abundance and relative abundance of stone marten, common genet and Egyptian mongoose also showed higher values in riparian habitats, with significant differences in at least one season. The Eurasian badger, on the other hand, showed higher relative abundance values in the landscape matrix, though differences were not significant. The SVAP index ranked about 83% riparian reaches as poor or fair condition, and species richness was significantly higher in fair condition reaches during the wet season. These results reflect the importance of riparian habitats in Mediterranean ecosystems for mammalian carnivores. However, the generalized poor condition of these habitats suggests that direct measures for riparian restoration could be appropriate. The preservation or improvement of riparian habitats would certainly benefit the mammalian carnivore populations and consequently their conservation.

Evaluating Detection Probabilities for American Marten in the Black Hills, South Dakota

ABSTRACT Assessing the effectiveness of monitoring techniques designed to determine presence of forest carnivores, such as American marten (Martes Americana), is crucial for validation of survey results. Although comparisons between techniques have been made, little attention has been paid to the issue of detection probabilities (p). Thus, the underlying assumption has been that detection probabilities equal 1.0. We used Presence‐Absence data obtained from a track‐plate survey in conjunction with results from a saturation‐trapping study to derive detection probabilities when marten occurred at high (>2 marten/10.2 km2) and low (≤1 marten/10.2 km2) densities within 8 10.2‐km2 quadrats. Estimated probability of detecting marten in high‐density quadrats was p = 0.952 (SE = 0.047), whereas the detection probability for low‐density quadrats was considerably lower (p = 0.333, SE = 0.136). Our results indicated that failure to account for imperfect detection could lead to an underestimation of marten presence in 15–52% of low‐density quadrats in the Black Hills, South Dakota, USA. We recommend that repeated site‐survey data be analyzed to assess detection probabilities when documenting carnivore survey results.

Surveying carnivores at large spatial scales: a comparison of four broad-applied methods

Reliable methods to estimate species richness are very important to managers and conservationists because they provide key data to make the right decisions in conservation programmes. In the case of carnivore mammals, traditional methods, such as direct count censuses, are not useful since these animals are usually scarce, elusive and nocturnal. Difficulties in carnivore sampling are compounded when monitoring programmes are developed at large spatial scales, where high economic costs and field efforts are necessary to achieve reliable richness or abundance estimates. These problems have highlighted the need to find more effective carnivore survey methods, especially in regions with high rates of landscape change, such as the Mediterranean basin. The present study, performed in a typical Mediterranean area, was the first in Europe to test simultaneously the relative efficiencies of four broad-applied sampling methods to detect carnivore species at large spatial scales. Sign surveys based on scat detection, scent stations, camera-trapping and live-trapping were investigated. We compared efficiencies using biological parameters and by considering both the logistic and economic costs of each method. Overall, scent stations and sign surveys were the most efficient methods both in economic and logistic terms. In addition, the use of scent stations may be necessary to detect species rarely detected by scats. Detailed and extensive training programmes for conducting sign surveys and scent stations may overcome perceived problems thus enhancing the widespread use of both methods. Our results are applicable not only to other Mediterranean areas, but also to other habitats and regions of the world. More research into the suitability of these and other methods in relation to different landscapes, seasons and species is required.

Les carnassiers des phosphorites du Quercy : évolution et phylogénie d'après P. Teilhard de Chardin

It is the first scientific article of P. Teilhard de Chardin on the fossil mammals, the first of a large set. The material, coming from exploitations of phosphates excavated during the 19° century in karstic fissures, is mixed in collections without taking into account their exact source and therefore without biochronologic references. Teilhard did a meticulous analysis of the discriminative characters of these fossils in order to establish the evolutionary sets allowing to progressively pass from a morphological type to another one. Observations essentially rest on the survey of the lower jaws, which are abundant in collections, and sometimes they lead to erroneous conclusions while considering close together some radically different species if one considers other elements. It comes as well from the cranial remains rarity than from the summary survey of these remains. However Teilhard, in spite of the absence of time reference, perfectly seized the series of the successive faunas of carnivores since the Eocene until the end of the Oligocene. His descriptions of dental specimens remain a model and the article marked an important date in the fossil carnivore survey and, in an overall plan, it brought a major contribution to the idea of evolution itself that, in the beginning of the twentieth century, could be still discussed.

Bovine tuberculosis in free-ranging carnivores from Michigan.

During a survey of carnivores and omnivores for bovine tuberculosis conducted in Michigan (USA) since 1996, Mycobacterium bovis was cultured from lymph nodes pooled from six coyotes (Canis latrans) (four adult female, two adult male), two adult male raccoons (Procyon lotor), one adult male red fox (Vulpes vulpes), and one 1.5-yr-old male black bear (Ursus americanus). One adult, male bobcat (Felis rufus) with histologic lesions suggestive of tuberculosis was negative on culture but positive for organisms belonging to the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex when tested by polymerase chain reaction. All the tuberculous animals were taken from three adjoining counties where M. bovis is known to be endemic in the free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) population. There were two coyotes, one raccoon, one red fox, and one bobcat infected in Alpena county. Montmorency County had two coyotes and one raccoon with M. bovis. Two coyotes and a bear were infected from Alcona County. These free-ranging carnivores/omnivores probably became infected with M. bovis through consumption of tuberculous deer. Other species included in the survey were opossum (Didelphis virginiana), gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), and badger (Taxidea taxus); these were negative for M. bovis.