California Cities Research Articles

How much did pandemic uncertainty affect real-estate speculation? Evidence from on-market valuation of for-sale versus rental properties

ABSTRACT We exploit a panel of Zillow Inc. property valuations to estimate the excess real-estate price growth observed in three California cities that is attributable to speculation triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic. Our research design leverages the counterfactual comparison of properties listed for sale to properties listed for rent, with the latter property class being available for habitation – just not for purchase – and thus neutral to price speculation. We implement a pre/post-2020 difference-in-difference estimation, which utilizes unit-level matching of otherwise similar sale and rental properties within a 1/2-mile radius of each other to compare differences in (a) 1-month valuation changes and (b) spot valuation uncertainties. Results indicate post-2020 property valuations in Merced and San Jose featured an excess annual price estimate growth of 22% and 14.8% points, respectively, whereas the Fresno market does not feature statistically significant excess growth.

What Is the Connection? Understanding Shared Micromobility Links to Rail Public Transit Systems in Major California Cities

As shared micromobility (bikes and scooters) has proliferated throughout urban areas, there has been growing interest in how it facilitates connections with rail transit systems. This study explores the magnitude of interactions between shared micromobility and rail public transit systems using shared micromobility trip data and rail transit schedule data. We evaluate over one million trips from October 2019 to February 2020 in four California cities (San Francisco, Los Angeles, Sacramento, and San Jose) and develop criteria to identify trips connecting to rail transit. These include spatial and temporal rules, such as whether a trip starts/terminates close to public transit stations and whether a trip takes place when transit systems are operating. The criteria are examined via sensitivity analyses. The results indicate the degree of interaction between rail public transit and shared micromobility varies across cities and systems (i.e., docked/dockless). Most connections take place in the downtown or around public transit hubs. About 5–20% of all shared micromobility trips are identified as accessing or egressing from rail transit. These connecting trips exhibit commute-driven patterns and greater measured velocities. We conclude by examining the applicability of incorporating schedule information into the identification process of shared micromobility trips connecting to rail transit systems.

Reducing southern California ozone concentrations in the year 2050 under a low carbon energy scenario

Recent studies predict that ozone (O3) concentrations within major California cities in the year 2050 will continue to violate the 8-h O3 standard despite the adoption of low-carbon energy. This O3 penalty largely stems from persistent NOx-rich chemistry within urban cores that causes O3 concentrations to increase when traditional combustion sources are replaced by renewable energy sources. Here we employ a Chemical Transport Model (CTM) equipped with a novel O3 source apportionment technique to better understand O3 formation and to design supplemental control measures to complement Greenhouse Gases (GHG) reduction strategies in California. Two base scenarios were analyzed: (i) a 2050 “business-as-usual” (BAU) scenario with O3 violations on 43% of simulated days, and (ii) a 2050 Greenhouse Gases reduction (GHGAi) scenario with O3 violations on 32% of simulated days. The source apportionment results of the GHGAi scenario identified offroad equipment & rail, marine vessels & aircraft, and industrial & agricultural emissions as the major NOx sources that contributed to the O3 violations, while boundary conditions & initial conditions (BCIC) and biogenic emissions were identified as the major volatile organic compounds (VOCs) sources. Despite a HCHO/NO2 ratio (FNR) suggesting that the SoCAB is in a VOC-limited chemical regime, the major VOC sources that contribute to O3 formation are not controllable. Therefore, complementary O3 control strategies are proposed that focus on NOx emissions within the GHGAi scenario. Three cumulative Supplemental Control Steps were evaluated. Control Step I reduced emissions from off-road equipment & rail, and marine vessels & aircraft (65% NOx emissions reduction relative to GHGAi). Control Step II expanded the measures in Control Step I by reducing emissions from industrial and agricultural sources (cumulative 73.6% NOx emissions reduction relative to GHGAi), while Control Step III extended the amount of control applied to all sources covered in Control Steps I and II (cumulative 85.4% NOx emissions reduction relative to GHGAi). All three Control Steps lowered O3 concentrations significantly in the SoCAB, with residual O3 violations mainly predicted in non-populated wilderness areas. The significant reductions in O3 produced by the Supplemental Control Steps decreased the predicted incidence of hay fever/rhinitis, asthma, and all-cause mortality by an order of magnitude compared to the transformation from the BAU to GHGAi scenario. The predicted public health savings associated with the Supplemental Control Steps are valued at $19.70–30.36B/yr.

The Race to Exclude: Residential Growth Controls in California Cities, 1970–1992

Local regulations that restrict residential growth are a key driver of California’s affordable housing crisis. Scholars have argued these growth controls were implemented in the late 20th century by cities intending to exclude Black households. However, growth controls may also have plausibly been driven by a desire to exclude growing Hispanic, Asian, and foreign-born populations; by increased concern about the negative environmental consequences of population growth; or by homeowners’ or cities’ fiscal motivations. I jointly test these competing explanations using time-varying data on the adoption of a variety of residential growth controls covering California cities from 1970 to 1992. I find that, all else equal, cities with a lower share of Black residents—both in absolute terms, and relative to their metropolitan area—were more likely to pass residential growth controls. I also find some evidence that growth controls were more likely to be passed in areas experiencing greater Black population growth and in cities more supportive of White-Black segregation. Finally, I find strong evidence that, net of other factors, cities in areas more supportive of policies to protect the environment were more likely to pass residential growth controls.

California’s native trees and their use in the urban forest

California’s urban forest is composed of both native and non-native species. These trees improve the quality of life of urban residents and mitigate the effects of climate change by buffering local microclimates. A species’ native status is often defined at the scale of the state’s political boundaries, which doesn’t reflect its actual native range. Here we define the list of 95 tree species native to California, create digital range maps for each species, provide native species lists for every city in California, and analyze trends in native tree species in the state’s urban areas. We found that California’s urban areas have relatively few tree species that are native within a given city’s boundaries. Even though non-natives outnumber natives in all California cities, opportunities for more native tree diversity are slim as most cities have less than four native species that aren’t already growing as urban trees. California’s cities face a hotter and drier future, threatening existing urban forests and the benefits they provide residents. We explore different options for tree selection based on the goal of growing healthy and resilient urban forests into the future.

Numerical Study on the Effects of Environmental Temperature of Major Cities in California on the Capacity Fade of Battery Cells in Electric Vehicles

Numerical Study on the Effects of Environmental Temperature of Major Cities in California on the Capacity Fade of Battery Cells in Electric Vehicles

How Self-Determination Moderates Burnout in Public Organizations Across Gender, Race, and Generation

Applying a critical lens to self-determination theory, this study examines which organizational and individual characteristics in local government impact burnout, looking specifically at differences across diverse groups. This study uses survey data from a sample of more than 2,500 local government employees from a large city in California. Factor analyses and multivariate regressions are used to empirically examine the impact of multiple organizational characteristics and individual differences on employee burnout. Findings show perceptions of fairness, autonomy, influence, cultural competence, ethnic and gender representation, and time engaging residents differ in their impact on burnout across different groups, leaving some minoritized groups more vulnerable to burnout. Findings also indicate how self-efficacy and prosocial motivation have varying effects across sociodemographic groups. For some groups, burnout can manifest as an increase in emotional exhaustion, while other groups experience depersonalization and the loss of personal accomplishment. Research on this issue can help inform more equitable and culturally appropriate organizational practices that can improve climate of inclusion, employee well-being, and public service outcomes. This analysis contributes to diversity management and representative bureaucracy research—important areas of study as the public sector consider an increasingly diverse future workforce.

Adminigration: City-Level Governance of Immigrant Community Members

The concept of adminigration provides a much-needed lens in theorizing immigration enforcement, citizenship, and urban geographies. We define adminigration as the governance of immigrant community members through city-level policies and programs, whether or not these explicitly focus on immigrants. Our focus on adminigration involves three theoretical interventions: (1) bridging literature on immigrant bureaucratic incorporation and crimmigration to situate city-level administrative practices within immigration policymaking; (2) a focus on how localized definitions of membership, as enacted by cities, produce citizenship, legality, and illegality, and (3) the argument that these practices play out in space, resulting in variegated urban landscapes that are better characterized as a network than a level. We develop these points through a review of the literature on bureaucratic incorporation, crimmigration, citizenship, and the spatialization of immigration policymaking. To illustrate the utility of this framework, we conclude with a case study of adminigration in a California city that we call “Mayville.”

Mapping the Gap: Understanding the Need for Occupational Therapy Among Older Adults With Visual Impairment.

Visual impairment (VI) affects more than 9 million Americans age 65 yr and older, and it limits meaningful participation in daily living. Occupational therapy can have a considerable impact on the functional performance of those with VI; however, information is limited on the existing occupational therapy services available for older adults with VI across the United States. To calculate the prevalence of VI by U.S. county and quantify and locate the existing occupational therapy practitioners with certification in vision rehabilitation. Synthetic estimation was used to calculate the prevalence of VI among those age 65 yr and older in the United States by county. Geographic Information Systems mapping was used to illustrate the prevalence of VI and availability of occupational therapy practitioners with specialized training in vision rehabilitation by U.S. town. Communities with high concentrations of older adults with VI were more prevalent in the center of the United States, whereas occupational therapy practitioners with specialty training in vision rehabilitation were concentrated primarily on the east coast of the United States, on both Florida coasts, in selected cities in Texas and California, in western Pennsylvania, and in Alabama. The availability of occupational therapy practitioners with specialty training in vision rehabilitation does not match the visual rehabilitation needs of older adults in the United States. These findings can be used to prioritize efforts for new service provision, provide outreach to underserved populations, and guide occupational therapy education to improve access to vision rehabilitation throughout the United States. What This Article Adds: The data provided in this study can inform resource allocation, workforce development, and entry-level occupational therapy education to address the ongoing needs of older adults with VI.

Alignment in local approaches to alcohol and cannabis control policy: A case study of California cities and counties.

Public health experts have urged governments around the world to regulate newly legalized cannabis as they do alcohol to effectively and efficiently protect health. However, research evaluating the alignment of alcohol and cannabis policies is sparse. We assessed similarities and differences in local alcohol and cannabis control policies across California, and characterized localities adopting distinct policy approaches. Using standard legal epidemiologic techniques, we collected and coded local alcohol and cannabis control policies relevant to public health for 12 California counties and all incorporated cities within them (N=241). We assessed whether localities were equally stringent on alcohol and cannabis policies by comparing overall restrictiveness (summed policy scores) and 9 specific provisions that applied to both substances. We captured distinct local alcohol-cannabis policy approaches using latent class analysis, and examined this classification in relation to local demographic, socioeconomic, political, and retail market characteristics. All 241 localities permitted alcohol sales, while 71% banned cannabis sales. Among those that did not ban cannabis sales, more stringent alcohol policy scores were associated with more stringent cannabis policy scores (linear regression coefficient: 0.16 [95% CI: 0.07, 0.25]). Local governments rarely adopted the same provisions for alcohol and cannabis (e.g., limits on hours of sale, advertising restrictions), and only two regulated the co-location of cannabis and alcohol outlets. Localities that were restrictive on alcohol yet permissive on cannabis (12%) were more urban, politically progressive, and had more low-income and racial/ethnic minority residents. Localities that were more permissive on alcohol and restrictive on cannabis (51%) were more socioeconomically advantaged. We found few similarities between local alcohol and cannabis control policies. California's experience suggests that, as governments around the world legalize cannabis, lessons learned from regulating alcohol are not routinely applied to cannabis, particularly in communities distinguished by high social and economic advantages.

Neighborhood sociodemographic characteristics and healthfulness of store checkouts in Northern California

Placement of products at food store checkouts has been shown to trigger impulse purchases and child purchasing requests. Therefore, food companies pay substantial amounts of money to ensure their products are placed at checkout, and these products are mostly unhealthy (e.g., sugar-sweetened beverages [SSBs], candy, chips). To improve the healthfulness of store environments, Berkeley, CA, U.S. became the first jurisdiction globally to implement a healthy checkout policy. This study examined associations between store neighborhood characteristics and healthfulness of foods and beverages offered at checkout to understand the potential for healthy checkout policies, such as Berkeley’s healthy checkout ordinance (HCO), to promote equitable food environments. Data on a near census of food and beverage facings (n = 26,758) at sampled checkouts were collected from 102 food stores (supermarkets, grocery stores, drugstores, dollar stores, specialty food stores, and mass merchandisers) across four Northern California cities (Berkeley, Oakland, Davis, and Sacramento) in February 2021. Bivariate regression analyses revealed that neighborhoods with lower socioeconomic status (SES) and higher Black and Hispanic residential composition had a higher prevalence of foods and beverages that did not meet HCO standards, including associations with a higher prevalence of sweets, higher prevalence of SSBs, and/or lower prevalence of healthy foods at checkout. Findings suggest that the checkout environment may be one of many contributors to diet-related health disparities. Additionally, healthy checkout policies may have the potential to increase nutrition equity by improving food environments across neighborhoods and especially in areas with lower SES and higher Black and Hispanic composition.

A statewide study of disparities in local policies and tobacco, vape, and cannabis retail environments

The current study: (1) assesses sociodemographic disparities in local policies related to tobacco and cannabis retail, and (2) examines the cross-sectional association between policy strength and retailer densities of tobacco, e-cigarette (vape), and cannabis retailers within California cities and county unincorporated areas (N = 539). We combined (a) American Community Survey data (2019 5-year estimates), (b) 2018 tobacco, vape, and cannabis retailer locations from a commercial data provider, (c) 2017 tobacco and vape retail environment policy data from American Lung Association, and (d) 2018 cannabis policy data from California Cannabis Local Laws Database. Conditional autoregressive models examined policy strength associations with sociodemographic composition and retailer density in California jurisdictions. Jurisdictions with larger percentages of Black and foreign-born residents had stronger tobacco and vape policies. For cannabis policy, only income had a small, significant positive association with policy strength. Contrary to hypothesis, tobacco/vape policies were not significantly associated with retailer density, but cannabis policy strength was associated with lower cannabis retailer density (relative rate = 0.58, 95% Uncertainty Interval 0.47–0.70)—this effect was completely driven by storefront bans. Thus, storefront cannabis bans were the only policy studied that was associated with lower cannabis retailer density. Further research is needed to understand policies and disparities in retail environments for tobacco, vape, and cannabis, including data on the prospective association between policy implementation and subsequent retailer density, and the role of enforcement.

Disaster-driven climate adaptation: bringing institutions in

Previous scholarship broadly emphasizes weather disasters as threshold events to instigate climate adaptation. This study goes beyond the disaster-adaptation nexus by investigating its institutional conditionality. Drawing on the theory of institutional isomorphism, we examine how disasters interact with three isomorphic institutions – coercive, mimetic and normative – to influence cities' adaptation to climate change. Using survey data on California cities in 2013–2014, 2017 and 2018, the findings suggest that cities predominantly take reactive and top-town approaches to climate adaptation, with coercive isomorphism being the main driver of their adaptation efforts. Meanwhile, the three isomorphic forces differentially condition the impacts of disasters on adaptation: both coercive and mimetic pressures produce a diminishing marginal effect as the frequency of disasters surpasses a certain threshold, whereas normative pressure exhibits a positive and reinforcing marginal effect as disaster exposure goes up. We conclude with practical implications associated with the boundary conditions of disaster-driven adaptation, adaptation policy design as well as entry points to bottom-up adaptation initiatives.

Examining Communication for Homeless Populations in Times of Crises

This paper examines communicating about complex challenges facing populations experiencing homelessness and examining alternative ways to communicate with these populations in times of crisis. Utilizing a case study approach, the researchers focused on cities in New York and California due to the high numbers of unhoused populations and individuals experiencing homelessness within these states. Experts in crisis and emergency management have provided invaluable recommendations on the general protection of life and property; however, individuals identifying as homeless or unhoused share characteristics that heighten their risk and vulnerability, such as lower socioeconomic status, unstable resilience levels prior to a crisis, and geographic disparities. The intersection of these attributes presents unique challenges for emergency managers and relevant public administrators when implementing crisis response and communication strategies, such as one-way written and oral messaging over media and social networks, along with enacting any new protocols needed in relation to the crisis itself, like targeted outreach. This paper discusses the evolution of crisis communication for homeless and unhoused populations, national statistics, along with analysis of case studies for Los Angeles, California, and New York City, New York. The paper concludes with eight major themes related to communicating with homeless and unhoused populations during times of crises and practical recommendations for emergency managers and relevant public administrators.

Desert Dreams and Techno-Utopian Nightmares

Despite being some of the harshest environments to design for and inhabit, deserts are considered some of the most malleable in our imagination. Countless military bases, proving grounds, gunneries, and practice fields that simulate other locales prove that in military imagination, deserts are nondescript proxy spaces waiting to be filled with the character of whatever location they are to imitate. The developers’ imagination is not far behind. Through a historical case study of California City, an ambitiously planned but only partially built desert development project, and unpacking of the terms “desert” and “wasteland,” this essay examines the colonial gaze towards the desert that often shapes our perceptions of this unique environment and exposes the fallacies in our thinking that lead us to imagine deserts as a blank slate waiting to be transformed. The paper also highlights the dangers of overconfidence in technology to create techno-utopias and the need to acknowledge the reality of the desert’s harsh environment in any planning or development.

The Logic of NIMBYism: Class, Race, and Stigma in the Making of California’s Legal Cannabis Market

This article explores how not-in-my-backyard (NIMBY) sentiments affect the implementation of new cannabis laws in California cities. Despite increasing legality and growing social tolerance, the actual status of cannabis remains controversial. Large segments of the population and local authorities remain uncomfortable with the use of cannabis and resist allowing cannabis facilities in their communities. I employ statistical analysis to understand why some jurisdictions move toward more permissive cannabis policies and others do not. The results show that, on average, socially and economically prosperous cities express higher support for cannabis legalization, but cannabis businesses are more likely to receive permits in cities that are socially and economically distressed. The disparity between demand (white middle-class communities) and supply (poor Hispanic communities) demonstrates that stereotypes generated by the war on drugs have not disappeared after the passage of new cannabis laws and continue to perpetuate the marginalization of disadvantaged individuals and places.

Recreational Marijuana Legalization, Local Retail Availability, and Alcohol and Marijuana Use and Co-Use Among California High School Students.

This study examined whether recreational marijuana legalization (RML) and local retail availability were associated with marijuana and alcohol use and co-use among adolescents. We investigated associations between RML and past-30-day marijuana and alcohol use and co-use, and moderating effects of retail availability of marijuana and alcohol, using data from the 2010-2011 to 2018-2019 California Healthy Kids Surveys (CHKS) of 9th and 11th grade students in 38 California cities. Multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression analyses were conducted, controlling for secular trends and student and city demographics. Additional analyses examined associations of RML and retail availability with co-use among subgroups of drinkers and marijuana users. For the full sample, RML was inversely associated with alcohol use but was not significantly associated with marijuana use or co-use with alcohol. However, significant interactions between RML and marijuana outlet density showed that there were increases in marijuana and alcohol co-use and alcohol following legalization in cities with higher densities of marijuana outlets. RML was positively associated with co-use among non-heavy and heavy drinkers, but inversely related to co-use among occasional and frequent marijuana users. A significant positive interaction between RML and marijuana outlet density indicated that RML was associated with increases in co-use for occasional marijuana users in cities with higher densities of marijuana outlets. RML was associated with increases in marijuana and alcohol co-use and alcohol use among California high school students, particularly those in cities with higher densities of retail cannabis stores, although this varied across alcohol and marijuana use subgroups.

Hydrogen station allocation based on equilibrium traffic flow

The deployment of hydrogen refueling stations is vital to the development of fuel cell vehicles. Past studies on the hydrogen refueling stations didn't consider congestion on paths and assumed all flows are on the shortest paths of OD pairs, which is not consistent with travelers' route choice behavior. In this paper, we study flow refueling location allocation based on the user-equilibrium (UE) status, which is consistent with travelers' route choice behavior. We present a flow-capturing location allocation (FCLA) model on UE conditions. We also presented an equilibrium algorithm avoiding cannibalization to solve the model. Based on the transportation network of Anaheim city in California in the US, we compared the results of applying a non-equilibrium method to the FCLA model and applying the equilibrium method to the FCLA model on UE conditions. The results of the two algorithms and models are different. The equilibrium model and algorithm can capture more flow and has a higher flow-capturing ratio. What's more, the equilibrium model and algorithm can fully capture the expected flow in practice since the real transportation network is basically in UE status. The equilibrium model and algorithm presented in this paper is the first study of this kind to locate stations in cities and is useful in the deployment of hydrogen refueling stations.

Food and Beverage Environments at Store Checkouts in California: Mostly Unhealthy Products

BackgroundAs the only place in a store where customers must pass through, checkouts may be especially influential over purchases. Research is needed to understand the healthfulness of checkout environments. ObjectivesThe objective of this study was to classify checkout product facings in California food stores. MethodsIn a cross-sectional study, 102 stores, including chains (dollar stores, drugstores, specialty food stores, supermarkets, and mass merchandisers) and independent supermarkets and grocery stores were sampled from 4 northern California cities. Observational assessments of each checkout product facing were conducted in February 2021 using the Store CheckOUt Tool. Facings were classified by category and healthfulness, defined by meeting Berkeley’s Healthy Checkout Ordinance’s healthy checkout standards: unsweetened beverages and specific foods containing ≤5 g added sugar and ≤200 mg sodium per serving. Log binomial regressions compared healthfulness by store and checkout characteristics. ResultsOf 26,758 food and beverage checkout facings, the most common categories were candy (31%), gum (18%), sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs; 11%), salty snacks (9%), mints (7%), and sweets (6%). Water represented only 3% and fruits and vegetables 1% of these facings. Only 30% of food and beverage facings met Berkeley’s healthy checkout standards, with 70% not meeting the standards. The percentage of food and beverage facings not meeting the standards was even higher (89%) among snack-sized packages (≤2 servings/package). Compared with chain supermarkets, mass merchandisers, and specialty food stores (34%–36%), dollar and independent grocery stores had a lower percentage of food and beverage facings that met the healthy checkout standards (18%–20%; P < 0.05). Compared with lane and register areas (35%), endcaps and snaking sections within checkouts had fewer food and beverage facings that met the standards (21%–23%; P < 0.001). ConclusionsMost foods and beverages at checkout consisted of candy, SSBs, salty snacks, and sweets and failed to meet the healthy checkout standards.

The Gory Details: Asylum, Sexual Assault, and Traumatic Memory

For asylum seekers to be granted asylum, they must convince immigration officials that they have been persecuted or that they fear they will be persecuted if returned to their home country. This article discusses the reluctance of asylum seekers to be forthcoming about sexual assault as a form of persecution and the ways in which traumatic memory can affect narratives of persecution for rape survivors. Many asylum seekers, particularly those who have been sexually assaulted, show symptoms consistent with trauma survivors. Consequently, their narratives of persecution are often shaped by partial and incomplete memory recall. The result is that how asylum seekers who have been sexually assaulted tell their stories of persecution is the antithesis of the expectations of credibility. This article is based on qualitative research in Los Angeles, California, and New York City, New York, in the United States. It includes interviews with asylum seekers, immigration attorneys, immigrant service providers, asylum officers, and immigration judges; observations of immigration court hearings; and content analysis of asylum applications. I use these sources to argue that the harm of rape and its long-lasting effects evidenced by symptoms of traumatic memory impacts how asylum seekers articulate stories of persecution. How these stories are told can have devastating effects for asylum seekers that may jeopardize their ability to gain asylum if immigration officials do not view them as credible applicants.