Mobile applications with automated species identification can assist citizen scientists in undertaking plant and habitat surveys. Whilst a high level of accuracy for these applications has been reported, very little testing has been done with citizen scientists in the field. If such applications are going to be used to support biodiversity research and conservation management, they need to be sufficiently accurate and functional for their intended use. We evaluated the accuracy of the e-Surveyor mobile application, which includes automated identification for plant species and habitat prediction. We compared species lists and derived habitat associations collected by citizen scientists using the application in the field, with data recorded by expert botanists within the same survey plots. We also assessed the user experience via a questionnaire. Thirty-seven citizen scientists attended the e-Surveyor workshops and completed a questionnaire, with 51 individual plant surveys submitted across the three habitat types: calcareous grassland, neutral grassland and improved grassland. On average, experts recorded more plant species per plot compared with citizen scientists. Of the species recorded by citizen scientists on e-Surveyor that were known to be present, 71% were correctly identified to species level, though typically only 45% of all observable species in the plot according to the expert botanists were captured correctly by the citizen scientists. Eighty per cent of surveys identified the correct first broad habitat and 25% identified the correct first phytosociological community suggested by the application. Citizen scientists provided valuable input through the questionnaire, including improvements to e-Surveyor and future use cases. Most citizen scientists were able to accurately identify almost half of the observable plant species present and determine the correct broad habitat using e-Surveyor, regardless of their botanical skill level. This suggests that the application is a useful tool for supporting biological recording, whilst improving confidence, knowledge and engagement with nature.

Calcareous grasslands in Central Europe are among the most species-rich habitats, yet they are undergoing a gradual but pervasive decline in habitat quality despite ongoing conservation efforts. Recent studies indicate that the expansion of Upright Brome ( Bromus erectus ), driven by climate change, atmospheric nitrogen deposition, and prevailing management practices, is leading to structural and floristic homogenisation. This process reduces bare-soil availability while threatening specialist plants and their associated fungi and animals, including pollinators and herbivorous insects. Traditional late-season mowing has proven insufficient to counter these changes, and current conservation strategies often fail to maintain the structural diversity necessary to sustain biodiversity. To halt the gradual degradation of calcareous grasslands, we argue that conservation practices must be fundamentally reconsidered. Adaptive management approaches – including year-round or temporary grazing, early-season mowing, and prescribed burning – should be implemented to restore habitat heterogeneity and support biodiversity. Timely adoption of such measures, accompanied where possible by regular monitoring, is essential to prevent further biodiversity loss in these valuable ecosystems.

Grasslands are key terrestrial ecosystems in which root dynamics regulate soil carbon and nutrient cycling. Although grazing constitutes the predominant land use practice in grassland ecosystems, its impacts on root dynamics remain inadequately elucidated, particularly across a gradient of grazing intensities. In this two-year field experiment, an improved root window method was applied to investigate the effects of four grazing intensities (no grazing, light grazing, moderate grazing, heavy grazing) on root production, root mortality, root standing crop, root turnover, and root lifespan in the saline–alkaline grassland in northern China. The results showed that root production and root mortality exhibited pronounced seasonal dynamics, with peaks in June and August for root production and in September for root mortality. These seasonal patterns were primarily driven by precipitation and were not significantly altered by grazing intensity. Moderate grazing significantly increased root production by 51.2% through changes in soil bulk density and selective livestock grazing, supporting the intermediate disturbance hypothesis. Root turnover was predominantly shaped by plant community composition and interannual precipitation, as opposed to grazing intensity. Overall, these findings indicate that moderate grazing promotes root growth, providing important insights into the sustainable utilization of saline–alkali grassland resources. In other words, appropriate measures must be taken to effectively manage grazing activities in the fragile saline–alkaline grasslands of northern China.

Responses of wild pollinators to honey bee colony presence and habitat restoration in calcareous grasslands

Satellite-derived vegetation indices provide a powerful means to quantify habitat variation in long-term ecological studies, but their reliability as proxies for forage availability in wild herbivore populations remains underexplored. We used three decades of Landsat satellite imagery (1991-2023) to generate a 30 m resolution dataset of a proxy for annual vegetation greenness - the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) - for the Isle of Rum, Scotland, home to a long-term study of wild red deer (Cervus elaphus). We ground-truthed the NDVI data against live vegetation biomass data collected from calcareous grassland, which is preferred by the deer, and compared it with a coarser-resolution (500 m) MODIS Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) metric. Landsat NDVI was positively correlated with both live biomass and EVI, supporting its ecological relevance as a measure of forage availability. All three metrics have increased over the last three decades, indicating a long-term greening trend, with the higher resolution Landsat dataset revealing variation in the rate of change among vegetation groups, including grassland habitats preferred by deer. These findings suggest an increase in forage availability over time, which may have important consequences for the red deer on Rum. Our approach provides a transferable framework for integrating satellite data with individual-based field studies, demonstrating how remote sensing can enhance ecological inference in long-term wildlife research.

Rational fertilization is a key measure for improving grassland productivity; however, the optimal effects of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) rationing vary across grasslands with different salinity–alkalinity conditions. To determine the optimum fertilization ratio for typical saline–alkaline degraded grasslands in the agro-pastoral transition zone of northern China, we carried out an experiment with different ratios of N, P and K to investigate the effects of fertilization on biomass, plant diversity, plant nutrient uptake and soil nutrient contents. The results showed that fertilization increased biomass, plant diversity, nutrient uptake and soil nutrient contents in all levels of saline–alkaline grasslands. Compared with the control, N2P2K2 treatment resulted in the significantly highest biomass, with an increase of 4.52 and 2.39 t ha−1 in slightly and moderately saline–alkaline grasslands; N2P2K1 resulted in the significantly highest biomass, with an increase of 1.14 t ha−1 in severely saline–alkaline grasslands. We integrated plant and soil properties to construct a second-order response surface model (RSM), and our recommended optimum N–P–K fertilization ratios for slightly, moderately and severely saline–alkali grasslands are 103.7–88.1–78.0, 125.5–91.5–74.1 and 85.2–68.1–58.2 kg ha−1, respectively. Reasonable fertilization can improve soil fertility, biomass yield and plant diversity, while excessive fertilization has negative effects on soil and plant traits. Our results provide theoretical support and practical guidance for the scientific fertilization of grasslands with varying salinity and alkalinity.

Human-induced environmental changes are driving declines in wild bee populations globally, threatening both pollination services and overall ecosystem stability. The implementation of effective conservation strategies for these pollinators ultimately depends on a clear understanding of both their local patterns of diversity and habitat associations. The Entre-Sambre-et-Meuse National Park (ESEMNP), recently created in southern Belgium, is situated in a botanically rich area but remains poorly documented in terms of standardised bee surveys. To address this gap, we monitored 32 sites over a five-month period, collecting 1159 specimens from 102 species. Of these, 17 are listed as threatened in Belgium’s most recent Red List, including four Critically Endangered species. Analyses revealed that calcareous grasslands supported the highest overall diversity and the greatest concentration of threatened taxa. These results emphasise the conservation value of certain habitat types within the park and the need for management practices that sustain both species richness and populations of at-risk species.

All the figures in this article were inadvertently printed in colour; the figure(s) should have appeared as shown below. Conceptual model of vegetation and grasshopper succession in wild boar rootings in calcareous grasslands. Wild boar create fresh rootings, which subsequently age and eventually converge to surrounding matrix vegetation. The matrix may be rooted again or further develop into shrubland/forest. Changes in insect communities are expected to change with microhabitat quality Aerial photograph showing the locations of the plots used in the field study in Hainich National Park, Germany. The white dots indicate fresh rootings, the light blue dots indicate old rootings and the dark blue dots indicate matrix plots. The different subareas, used as random factors in the statistical analysis, are indicated in orange. The white ellipses indicate the clusters of plots, these are also used as random factors in the analysis (GDI-Th; dl-de/by-2-0) Abundances of grasshoppers and crickets (Orthoptera) in fresh rootings (F), old rootings (O) and matrix (M) with SE in in calcareous grasslands in Hainich National Park, Germany, measured in May (light blue) and June (dark blue). Values are means with SE. a total Orthoptera abundance, b Caelifera and c Ensifera. Letters indicate significant differences as found in the GLMM’s Associations of Orthoptera with microhabitat variables in calcareous grasslands in the Hainich National Park, Germany. The figure shows the estimated effect size of the different measured habitat quality variables as derived from the model averaging. The shown values for the estimated effect sizes and confidence intervals are the conditional averages of the top-rank models (ΔAICc < 3). Their effects on the abundances of total Orthoptera, as well as specifically on the suborders Caelifera and Ensifera, were tested. The left panel shows the results for May, and the right panel those for June. The error bars indicate the 95% Confidence intervals around the estimated values of the effect size. This means that the effect sizes of which the conditional averages do not overlap with 0 are significant (p < 0.05). Subarea and spatial clusters were used as random factors NMDS ordination of grasshopper communities for three successional stages in abandoned calcareous grassland in Hainich National Park, Germany. Although they largely overlap the grasshopper communities in the matrix significantly differed from those in the young and old rooting (PERMANOVA test), as shown by the spider diagrams (dotted lines). See for the exact numerical results Online Appendix 5 The original article has been corrected.

Since the recent application of bioacoustic methods in the research of taxa forming a species complex of mountain cicada Cicadetta montana s. l., knowledge of the species diversity and distribution of this group of insects in many European countries has become outdated. This is also true for Poland, where this taxon is rare, and where – of the morphologically cryptic species – only C. cantilatrix has been reported and only in the region of Polish Uplands. From 2021 to 2024, we conducted visual and bioacoustic searching to assess the presence of mountain cicadas in 13 remnant patches of dry grasslands (altogether 40.5 ha) protected as Natura 2000 sites and located between two disjunctive locations of known occurrence of C. cantilatrix. The presence of mountain cicadas has been confirmed at two sites, in Inuletum ensifoliae xerothermic grassland vegetation located on warm and sunny slopes of limestone hills. The two sites found connect the previously known locations of C. cantilatrix in the Polish Uplands. Preserving the remnants of dry grasslands that still exist in the landscape of the studied region seems to be essential for maintaining the functional connectivity of this habitat-specialised insect. Due to the still existing knowledge gaps, it is recommended both to search for new localities in suitable xerothermic biotopes and to verify the presence of mountain cicadas at the few sites of old records. The investigation should include both visual observation and bioacoustic search and analysis. A large number of such results would be necessary for unravelling the taxonomic status and geographical distribution of mountain cicadas both in Poland and Central Europe.

The restoration of species-rich calcareous grasslands is a critical conservation objective, yet the recovery of the invisible below-ground microbiome remains poorly quantified compared to above-ground vegetation. Using a unique 143-year land-use chronosequence on Salisbury Plain, UK, we investigated the trajectory of ecosystem reassembly across arable, regenerating (23 and 67years), and ancient grasslands. By integrating vegetation surveys with soil physiochemistry, microbial profiling, and shotgun metagenomics, we identified a decoupling between floral and edaphic recovery. While the diversity of vegetation recovered relatively rapidly, approaching ancient grassland levels within 23-67years, soil properties exhibited persistent legacy effects and slow convergence. Bacterial richness decreased with restoration age; this taxonomic contraction was conversely matched by an expansion in inferred metagenomic functional potential. This was reflected in increased functional gene richness and shifts in the relative abundance of specific SEED-annotated functions towards metabolic pathways associated with complex carbon cycling and stress tolerance. These shifts were congruent with the emergence of specific, unnamed genera belonging to Pseudomonadota and Actinomycetota, and the Bacillota species Pristimantibacillus. The soil ecosystem remained distinct from the 143-year stage even after 67years of recovery, characterized by persistent legacy phosphorus and a slow accumulation of soil organic matter. These findings suggest that passive regeneration alone may be insufficient for full soil functional recovery, and that strategies targeting microbial assembly and long-term carbon dynamics warrant further evaluation.

Abstract Much of the UK uplands are dominated by species‐poor grasslands, largely a result of intensive sheep grazing. In some areas, efforts are underway to restore more natural habitats by reducing the number of sheep, with possible benefits to biodiversity, flood alleviation and carbon storage. Restoration aims to improve vegetation diversity, reduce the dominance of grasses and increase vegetation height and structural complexity. This study evaluates whether changing grazing from light sheep grazing to light cattle grazing restored vegetation at an upland calcareous site in the Yorkshire Dales National Park in England. Vegetation surveys were conducted in 19 quadrats of 2 m × 2 m, surveyed every 4 years over a 12‐year period. Generalised linear mixed models were used to understand how a number of key vegetation characteristics, relevant to restoration success, have changed with increasing years since sheep removal. Changing from sheep to cattle grazing led to a change in vegetation species composition. Species richness, calcareous grassland indicators and proportion cover of bryophytes were found to increase with increasing years since sheep removal. In contrast, vegetation height and the proportion cover of grass decreased. Our results show that switching from sheep to cattle grazing was highly successful in restoring diversity and habitat quality in calcareous landscapes. The less selective grazing of cattle led to a more open, less grass‐dominated sward, allowing calcareous grassland wildflowers such as Linum catharticum and Lotus corniculatus to increase in frequency. However, the vegetation became shorter, another important objective for vegetation restoration in the uplands, suggesting a possible trade‐off between diversity and vegetation height at a small scale. Practical implication . Changing from sheep grazing, even at a low intensity, to extensive cattle grazing restores calcareous habitat diversity and quality. Restoration of vegetation height and structure may require other grazing management such as livestock exclusion.

Abstract Butterfly populations have experienced substantial declines in recent decades due to land‐use change, agricultural intensification and climate change. In the UK uplands, the impact of livestock grazing on butterfly populations has not been well documented. In this study we used long‐term monitoring from the Ingleborough National Nature Reserve in the English uplands to examine the impact of sheep grazing, cattle grazing and ungrazed management on butterfly abundance and species diversity across an upland calcareous site. Lightly cattle‐grazed sites were found to have 4.9 times the abundance of butterflies compared to sites lightly grazed by sheep. There were 3.6 times as many butterflies on ungrazed sites compared to sheep‐grazed sites. The species richness of butterflies was also significantly higher on cattle‐grazed and ungrazed sites compared to sheep‐grazed sites. Our study provides evidence of the conservation benefits of low‐intensity cattle grazing for butterfly abundance and diversity on calcareous grasslands in the UK uplands. Practical implication . For effective butterfly conservation, a shift from sheep grazing to light cattle grazing or stock exclusion in upland calcareous landscapes should be considered.

Climate change is a threat to global biodiversity, with changes to mean temperatures and increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. Heatwaves in particular pose a threat to species’ persistence, as temperatures may rise above physiological tolerance. However, individuals rarely experience temperatures measured at the macroclimatic scale: topographic or vegetation differences result in microclimates that provide cool refugia (local temperatures below ambient) or even result in heat traps (local temperatures above ambient) during heatwaves. However, little is known about the stability of microclimates through a period of regional warming. In this study, we recorded microclimate temperatures across different microhabitats within a calcareous grassland nature reserve in Bedfordshire, UK, in 2018, 2019 and 2022. During this time, six heatwave events occurred, including the highest air temperatures ever recorded in the UK. We found that the ability of microhabitats to offset air temperatures varied with topographic aspect, slope, amount of bare ground, shelter, vegetation height, and vegetation type, with encroaching scrub and north-facing slopes showing the strongest abilities to maintain relatively stable microclimate temperatures with increasing air temperatures, in contrast to short vegetation on south-facing slopes which became heat traps. However, no combinations of environmental structures consistently maintained cool refugia during heatwaves. Microclimate temperatures were amplified close to the ground, whereas at 50 cm height temperatures were more stable and similar to the macroclimate temperature, therefore surface-dwelling species, such as many insects, may be particularly vulnerable to extreme heat. We identified a breakdown in the ability of microhabitats to maintain cool refugia above 7 °C, implying cool refugia become increasing rare and unpredictable with increasing temperatures. Our results indicate that many microhabitats will amplify the effects of climate change rather than mitigate them. The innate unpredictability and scarcity of extreme temperature events makes them an evolutionary challenge; instead, microclimatic refugia are often suggested as a way for species to cope under climate change. By comparing microclimate temperatures to macroclimate temperatures (from a nearby weather station) in central England, we highlight how variable local temperatures can be at fine scales relevant to small surface-dwelling organisms, with microclimate temperatures differing by as much as 20 °C. Microclimate performance changed with increasing temperature, with more heat traps (microclimate temperatures above ambient) and fewer cool refugia (microclimate temperatures below ambient). No environmental variables tested reliably maintained cool refugia at high temperatures. Ground-level microclimate temperatures were amplified compared to temperatures at 50 cm height, implying that surface-dwelling organisms in grasslands, including many insects, may be particularly vulnerable compared to species that fly, climb, or live in tall vegetation.

Semi-natural grasslands under extensive grazing host a high diversity of plants whose diverse flower traits are crucial for insect pollinators, which are facing a worrying decline. We investigated how grazing regimes in dry calcareous grasslands influence the diversity and composition of flower traits important for pollinators. We measured the taxonomic diversity (TD) of the plant community, as well as the functional diversity (FD) and the community-weighted means (CWM) of seven morphological, phenological, and reflectance flower traits for insect-pollinated species across 116 plots in 22 farms and nearby abandoned areas spanning six regions in Italy and Switzerland. We compared managed and abandoned areas to assess differences in FD and CWM, and fitted two piecewise structural equation models to infer direct and indirect effects of grazing regimes on TD, FD and CWM. Extensive grazing did not alter flower traits’ FD compared to abandonment, but favoured flowers’ characteristics beneficial to pollinators, e.g., increased CWMs of flower size, flowering period length, and UV reflectance. Across different grazing regimes, local grazing pressure emerged as a key driver of TD and, in turn, of the FD and CWM of several flower traits. Plant communities with a more even distribution of dominant and rare species were positively associated with the FD of flower symmetry, flowering initiation and UV reflectance, as well as the representation of zygomorphic and non-yellow flowers. Maintaining extensive grazing is essential to preserve flower characteristics that are important for pollinators. Managing grazing intensity patterns at local spatial scales is crucial to increase the diversity of flower traits, which, in turn, may support a broad range of insect pollinators. • Extensive grazing enhances flower traits crucial for insect pollinators. • Local grazing pressure influences taxonomic and functional diversity. • An even grazing pressure enhances flower traits beneficial for pollinators.

Land-use change has led to a widespread loss of biodiversity across Central Europe, with calcareous grasslands being particularly affected, mainly due to the shift from traditional management to intensive agriculture or complete abandonment. To counteract the negative impacts of management cessation, shrub removal followed by grazing can serve as an effective restoration measure. In this study, we used wild bees as bioindicators to assess the ecological value of restored calcareous grasslands for biodiversity conservation. Across 21 restored grasslands (RestGras) and 21 regularly managed calcareous grasslands (Control) within the largest connected calcareous grassland area in northern Germany, we investigated environmental conditions and wild bee communities for all, threatened, belowground-nesting and snail shell-nesting species. Despite differences in habitat structure between the two grassland types, wild bee species richness and abundance did not differ. However, species composition varied to a certain extent, with some species, particularly those reliant on specific nesting structures like deadwood, plant stems and snail shells, favoring restored grasslands. Both direct incident radiation (DIR) and flower cover were found to have a positive impact on species richness and abundance of all and belowground-nesting wild bees. However, threatened species were positively influenced only by DIR. Furthermore, a higher cover of shrubs proved to be a crucial factor positively influencing snail shell-nesting wild bees. Our results show that restoration measures create structures that are not present in the control plots, thereby increasing heterogeneity at the regional scale. This, in turn, supports diverse pollinator communities in grassland ecosystems, highlighting the importance of restoration efforts for biodiversity conservation.

Abstract Introduction Limestone quarries impact natural areas, and they are spreading in relation to human population growth. Little is known about the impact of limestone quarries and their restoration on biodiversity. Objectives This review aims to provide an overview of how biodiversity is assessed in limestone quarries, how it impacts biodiversity, and the restoration practices applied after mining. Methods We reviewed the published literature, including a total of 140 studies. Results Very few studies were designed to include more than one quarry or different control areas. Few studies examined the role of quarries as open habitats during mining operations, while the majority focused on habitat restoration after excavation. Restoration can occur through active or natural processes. Although active restoration, such as soil amendments and planting, was preferred, natural processes may better support communities that resemble those inhabiting natural calcareous grasslands. Even natural recovery often requires active management. Most studies focused on plants and arthropods, with very few addressing vertebrates. The impact of dust emission was mainly analyzed on plants and lichens. Conclusion There is a significant knowledge gap regarding biodiversity in active quarries and limited data on animal communities. Restoration efforts should integrate both active and passive strategies, with improved monitoring programs and broader taxonomic coverage.

ABSTRACTSoil organic matter (SOM) is an important component of ecosystem carbon stocks. Generally, SOM found in mineral and organo‐mineral soils can be categorised into two fractions: particulate organic matter (POM) and mineral‐associated‐organic matter (MAOM), both of which contain soil organic carbon (SOC). Understanding the relationship between SOC and SOM fractions provides insight into SOM decomposition and SOC storage potential. Here we show an intriguingly tight relationship between the fraction of SOC in SOM (denoted as fOC), habitat and soil physical properties, as well as SOC stored in POM and MAOM. This opens up new ways to predict spatial variations in the distribution of POC and MAOC using more widely available fOC data as a covariate. By compiling 14 datasets and 9503 measurements from across Europe and globally we analysed fOC across mineral and organic soils, which fell between 0.38 and 0.58, consistent with variation in carbon of major plant components. fOC followed a habitat gradient with lowest median values in Seagrass sediments (0.36 ± 0.09) and Permafrost habitats, followed by croplands (0.47 ± 0.08) and a maximum in semi‐natural habitats (e.g., neutral, acid and calcareous grasslands) (0.56 ± 0.07), with differences between broadleaved (0.50 ± 0.087) and coniferous woodlands (0.53 ± 0.07) which were driven by overall organic matter content. The data show a tight link between vegetation carbon and the contents of SOC and SOM across various habitats, which could be used to inform agricultural soil management, improved land‐use planning (e.g., woodlands), and tracking climate‐related SOC targets.

Floral resources in the surrounding landscape matrix augment plant species richness of bumblebee pollen loads in small, fragmented calcareous grasslands

Soil pH plays a critical role in shaping the structural composition and functional dynamics of grassland ecosystems. The seasonal dynamics of carbon exchange and the factors influencing them in grassland ecosystems along saline–alkaline gradients remain unclear. In this study, saline–alkaline grasslands in northern China were classified into four gradients based on soil pH: mild salinization (pH = 8.36 ± 0.01), moderate salinization (pH = 9.21 ± 0.06), severe salinization (pH = 9.92 ± 0.04), and extreme salinization (pH = 10.49 ± 0.01). Ecosystem carbon exchange (net ecosystem carbon exchange (NEE), ecosystem respiration (ER), and gross ecosystem productivity (GEP)), as well as related biotic and abiotic factors, were investigated in the years 2023 and 2024. Results indicated that extreme salinization significantly reduced NEE, ER, and GEP, whereas no significant differences were observed in these carbon flux components between moderate and severe salinization levels. In 2024, NEE, ER, and GEP exhibited seasonal dynamics; compared to the early (May) and late (September) periods, greater differences were observed during the middle (June–August) period, particularly across varying salinization gradients. Significant negative correlations were observed between soil temperature, root-to-shoot ratio (R/S) and NEE, ER, and GEP, while above-ground and below-ground biomass were significantly positively correlated with NEE, ER, and GEP. Soil moisture exhibited a significant quadratic relationship with both ER and GEP. Importantly, results showed that the R/S explained the greatest variation in carbon fluxes. In summary, as salinization increased, carbon exchange capacity declined significantly, particularly under conditions of extreme salinization, where the R/S emerged as the primary regulatory factor.

ABSTRACTThere is strong evidence that climate change causes species range shifts and declines. Protected areas and suitable habitats are important for maintaining biodiversity. Species range changes depend on landscape connectivity between areas, facilitating movement and colonisation. Conservationists should identify landscape connectivity, as climate change causes species to move at different points in time. We quantified national connectivity for England for a sample of nationally important taxa associated with limestone and upland habitats, reflecting the White Peak as example focal region. We generated England‐wide species distribution models for 15 species for three climate change time scenarios (Shared Socioeconomic Pathway 245): current, 2050 and 2090. We inverted these models, applying circuit theory analysis, to create connectivity maps. We applied z‐score standardisation to compare differences between scenarios. We considered the top decile of connectivity occurring across the time periods as the ‘landscape connectivity network’. We compared this with the National Character Area framework of land parcels, the Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) map, and quantified landcover in the network. The landscape connectivity network showed future species requirements becoming more diffuse, i.e., the landscape becoming more permeable. High connectivity value land lay in South West or South East England, and the central Pennines; implying range shifts to diverging latitudes. The network measured 1,029,000 ha, with 13% inside SSSIs. In the White Peak focal example, there were 7600 ha, with 38% inside SSSIs. Across England, the network's landcover included broadleaved woodland (365,000 ha), calcareous grassland (55,000 ha), and improved grassland (305,000 ha), the latter thought to be of low biodiversity value. This research innovates by combining connectivity assessments for widely different taxa associated with one habitat type for three climate change time scenarios. It shows how connectivity tends to be concentrated in certain areas of England, thereby identifying important national and regional connectivity areas to support species conservation planning.