Urbanization has a growing influence on pollinator species worldwide, benefiting some species while threatening others. Urban areas have high cover of impervious surfaces, altered floral communities, and competition from non-native species. Additionally, the existing biodiversity in urban areas may not be equitably distributed, instead reflecting patterns of wealth (ie luxury effects). Despite these challenges, city parks can serve as refuges for pollinator biodiversity. We investigated how wild bee and butterfly species richness and community composition differed across city parks depending on landscape-scale (neighborhood income and land cover surrounding a park) and local-scale (floral traits and honey bee abundance) factors in Denver, Colorado, United States. We found increased wild bee richness was primarily related to local-scale factors like increases in floral species richness and non-weedy plant cover. Butterfly richness was instead primarily negatively associated with landscape-scale factors like increased cover of impervious surfaces and income. Although we did not observe broad-scale luxury effects, we found that lower-income parks had a higher proportion of non-native weedy plants and lower wild bee species richness than higher-income parks, which had primarily native plantings and higher wild bee richness. Wild bee communities differed between parks with high and low abundances of honey bees (Apis mellifera), with Bombus huntii most associated with abundant honey bee parks, and 7 solitary bees associated with lower honey bee parks. These findings suggest managers can implement species-rich native plantings in parks to support wild bee diversity regardless of landscape context. However, interventions to support butterflies may rely more on landscape-level planning.

Ayapokiar is village in a protected forest area with an altitude of 925 m above sea level. This area is rich in biodiversity, including that of butterflies. Although this area is a protected forest, there are no data on butterfly species in the area. Thus, this study aimed to examine the richness and abundance of butterfly species in protected forest areas, especially in Ayapokiar Village. Scanning sampling on a predetermined line transect was used. A total of 135 butterflies and 1540 individuals were successfully identified in six families (Papilionidae, Hesperidae, Pieridae, Riodinidae, Lycaenidae, and Nymphalidae). The results of the Shannon Wiener diversity index analysis showed high diversity, with a value of H '= 4.02. The study was conducted in primary forests, secondary forests, gardens, and residential habitat types. The highest diversity index of the four habitats was found in the primary forest habitat type, H'=3.87, and the lowest in the garden, H'=3.45. This study also identified Mycalesis Valeria, as a new species record. Previously, this species was found only in the Central and Cyclops Mountains. This indicates that there are similarities in plate formation between the Tambrauw, Central Mountains and Cyclops Mountains.

A field survey of butterflies was conducted from March 2023 to April 2025 at 17 altitudinal sites ranging from 1377 to 3000 meters with the transect walk sampling technique. In the study area, we recorded 2586 individuals and 74 butterfly species, belonging to 49 genera and six families. Nymphalidae is the most dominant family, with 32 species, comprising 43% of the overall count, followed by Pieridae with 14 species (19%), Lycaenidae with 13 species (18%), Papilionidae with 6 species (8%), Hesperidae with 6 species (8%), and finally Riodinidae with 3 species (4%). The Shannon Diversity Index (H’) ranged from 3.711 to 4.299. In the study area, we recorded seven IUCN RED LIST CATEGORY butterflies. This research aims to provide the first known record of butterfly species from this region. This study lays a foundation for future research and conservation efforts.

Abstract The global decline of insects in general and pollinators in particular poses a significant threat to biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Butterflies serve as sensitive indicators of environmental changes due to their specific habitat requirements and rapid responses to ecosystem alterations. Available studies are mostly devoted to analysing the effect of anthropogenic disturbance on the abundance and diversity of butterflies within disturbed landscape matrices. In this study we investigated how disturbances influenced butterfly populations within an undisturbed landscape matrix usually overlooked in the literature. Eighteen sites were monitored biweekly from May to September over 3 years (2022–2024) using standardized visual counts along 500‐m long transects. Grazing intensity and the surface of human‐disturbed lands were used as a measure of disturbance at local and landscape scales. A total of 16,017 individuals and 78 species were recorded. No significant differences in species richness or abundance were observed across the land use types, but analyses showed distinct species compositions between cultivated sites and grasslands. Butterfly community compositions were mainly influenced by structural habitat characteristics rather than land use. Low grazing intensity and the presence of forests in the surroundings positively influenced the abundance and species richness of butterflies. Within an undisturbed landscape matrix, cultivations play a different ecological role than in disturbed landscape matrix increasing landscape heterogeneity and butterfly diversity and hosting ecotonal communities. Anyway, disturbed land use types inhabit impoverished butterfly communities compared to semi‐natural ones in which the presence of protected species further emphasizes their critical role for conservation.

This study provides a comprehensive insight into the species richness and diversity of butterflies recorded from Nagarahole (Rajiv Gandhi) National Park (NNP), a protected area in southern Western Ghats of Karnataka, India. An updated checklist of 210 species, including previous records of 138 species, by adopting random and opportunistic sampling methods across different vegetation types of NNP from June 2021 to June 2023. The Nymphalidae was the most species-rich butterfly family, represented by 63 species, followed by Lycaenidae (57 species), Hesperiidae (49), Pieridae (23), Papilionidae (16), and Riodinidae (2). Of the total, 35 species are listed under various schedules of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, including the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2022. Additionally, four species are endemic to the Western Ghats. The population status of butterflies in NNP indicates that 38% of species are very common, 19% are common, 23% are not rare, and 10% are rare. However, 20 butterfly species (10%) are classified as very rare in their status. This highlights the importance of conservation measures to protect these butterfly species in this area.

Butterflies are widely recognized as biological indicators of habitat quality due to sensitivity to environmental changes and habitat disturbances. This study aimed to assess butterflies’ species diversity in Magombera Nature Forest Reserve (MNFR), Tanzania as indication of forest recovery from the previous disturbances. Specifically, the study aimed to assess i) current status of butterfly species richness and diversity in MNFR, and (ii) butterfly species abundance, dominance and distribution in MNFR. Data collected through line transects using sweep nets and visual observations across the forest area of 2,623 ha. Species richness computed as a total number of species in a given area, species diversity computed using Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index (H') and abundance computed as a total count of all individuals. The results indicated that a total of 155 butterfly species belonging to six families and 64 genera recorded in MNFR. Closed forest had high species richness (105) and diversity values (H' = 4.06) and Grassland has least species (46) and diversity values (H' = 3.27). Variation in vegetation composition in MNFR influence higher butterfly species richness, diversity and abundance in closed forest and open woodland than in grassland and riparian vegetation indicating the improvement of forest recovery from prior disturbances after being upgraded to nature reserve in 2018. Therefore, intensive management approaches that currently implemented by the Tanzania Forest Services Agency (TFS) at MNFR should be maintained to overcome other ecological changes. This will assure proper ecological flow within the forest and between Udzungwa Mountain National Park and Selous Game Reserve.

Most information on biodiversity changes is from the last few decades despite species responding to environmental changes for centuries. Longer-term information is needed to contextualize whether recent changes reflect longer-term trends. We focus on tropical regions, which are exceptionally biodiverse but contain many species that are currently threatened. We integrate historical and contemporary data from museum collections and online records for 45 butterfly species from Sulawesi (Indonesia) to explore species richness trends over the past 166 years (1857–2022), test whether recent trends mirror longer-term trends and examine whether species that are endemic, forest-dependent and/or host–plant specialists have declined the most. Over the 166-year time period, we found no systematic decline in overall species richness, despite shorter-term multi-decadal changes (positive, stable and negative trends). Recent trends generally did not match longer-term trends. Contrary to expectation, we found long-term increases in some species, particularly those that are non-endemic or open-habitat tolerant, whereas endemic and/or forest-dependent species showed more mixed trends, either stable or declining. We find long-term stability in regional species richness, but this masks composition changes that include more non-endemic and open-habitat species over time. Short-term fluctuations, spanning a few decades, did not reflect longer-term patterns, highlighting challenges in determining robust patterns of biodiversity change.

Abstract Urban expansion continues to impact natural landscapes and biodiversity, yet cities are implementing measures to mitigate some of these negative effects. One such measure is the use of vertical greenings, which aim to enhance urban ecosystems and support biodiversity. Given the limited knowledge of pollinators in these vertical green spaces, we conducted a pilot study in a Central European city (Vienna, Austria) focusing on butterfly and wild bee species richness and their interactions with foraging plants during the year 2022. In total, we recorded 32 wild bee species and eight butterfly species. Our results show that vertical greenings with high floral richness (i.e., comprising more than four flowering entomophilous plant species) supported significantly more wild bee (p = 0.005) and butterfly (p = 0.002) species compared to vertical greenings with low floral richness (i.e., comprising two or fewer flowering plant species). The majority of bee-plant interactions were observed on Nepeta faassenii, Sedum sp., and Parthenocissus quinquefolia, while most butterfly-plant interactions were observed on Nepeta faassenii. Implications for insect conservation: Our study demonstrates that vertical greenings may serve as valuable nectar and pollen sources in urban environments. However, their effectiveness most likely depends on floral diversity, which we observed to be, at least partly, influenced by the maintenance practices of the greenings.

ABSTRACT Farmland biodiversity is known to be showing sharp declines worldwide, mainly due to agricultural intensification. Within this scenario, the identification of agricultural practices providing economic benefits to farmers and, at the same time, favoring higher biodiversity levels is a key challenge. Aiming at assessing the benefit to biological diversity of certain types of agricultural management practices, we analyzed the effects of legume crops, in comparison to dry cereal crops, on biodiversity proxies in central Spain. We compared species richness, abundance, and functional diversity of birds, butterflies, and other flower-visiting insects between legume crops fields versus cereal fields. We selected three nitrogen-fixing crop types: alfalfa, peas, and vetch, being the first one under two different management systems, irrigated and non-irrigated. We found that all the taxonomic groups had higher species richness and abundance in legume crops than cereal crops, being highest in alfalfa than in the other legume crop types. Finally, it is important to note that some management types of legume crops may be detrimental to species that breed, forage, or rest in these habitats. Consequently, we recommend that efforts to promote legume crops for biodiversity conservation should be accompanied by appropriate management practices especially during the avian breeding season.

Abstract Insect pollinators are declining globally, with habitat fragmentation recognised as an important driver. While these declines have garnered widespread public and policy attention, current evidence remains largely limited to certain taxa, geographic regions and ecosystems, thereby resulting in diverse outcomes. Here, we aimed to present a global meta‐analysis using a dataset comprising 80 studies across 28 countries on all continents, excluding Antarctica. We used Pearson's correlation coefficient ( r ) as an effect size to measure the association between habitat fragmentation and the abundance and species richness of wild bees, butterflies and wasps. Subsequently, we performed categorical meta‐analyses that used fragmentation indices, climates and taxonomic groups as moderators to investigate the dependency of habitat fragmentation effects on these factors. Increasing habitat fragmentation was significantly associated with reductions in both the abundance ( r = −0.26, 95% CI: −0.39, −0.12) and species richness ( r = −0.46, 95% CI: −0.55, −0.35) of insect pollinators. The magnitude of these associations varied depending on the evaluated fragmentation index. Specifically, pollinator abundance ( r = −0.43, 95% CI: −0.56, −0.29) and species richness ( r = −0.62, 95% CI: −0.71, −0.52) significantly decreased with reduced habitat area. Synthesis and applications. Our results show that insect pollinators have declined globally due to habitat fragmentation. Reduced habitat area was the main driver of pollinator decline. The findings indicate that preserving large habitats can support more insect pollinators. This implies that policies must target the landscape scale to mitigate the negative effects of habitat fragmentation.

ABSTRACTButterflies serve as sensitive bioindicators of ecological health, with their diversity affected by anthropogenic disturbances such as urbanization and habitat alteration. Lakeside, located in Pokhara, Nepal, is one of the most urbanized areas in the country, with its eastern boundary abutting the Methlang Forest area. Despite its rich biodiversity, the forest remains under‐documented. Between 2017 and 2021, the author conducted modified Pollard Walk surveys on an opportunistic basis to assess the species composition, richness, and seasonal distribution of adult butterflies across the forest. A total of 225 butterfly species, representing six families across 122 genera, were recorded within a 2.1 km2 area. Species richness exhibited an annual bimodal pattern, with the highest diversity observed in May (n = 107) and April (n = 102) followed by October (n = 90) and the lowest in December (n = 33) and January (n = 61). Notable findings included the first record of Burara anadi anadi (de Nicéville, 1884) in Nepal, along with sightings of Pithauria murdava (Moore, 1866), Prosotas bhutea (de Nicéville, [1884]), and Liphyra brassolis brassolis (Westwood, 1864), all of which were documented after at least three decades in Nepal. This study represents the first checklist of butterflies in this highly urbanized and ecologically fragmenting tourism hub, underscoring the urgent need for conservation initiatives. The prospects of butterfly tourism, alongside other forms of wildlife tourism, are discussed as a solution to balance habitat conservation with economic development, potentially extending across the broader Himalayan region.

Conspicuous declines in native grassland habitats have triggered sharp reductions in grassland birds, dragonflies, butterflies, and native plant populations and diversity. We compared these biotic groups among three crop type treatments: corn, alfalfa, and a perennial native grass, Virginia wild rye, (Elymus virginicus L.) or VWR. This crop type had 2-3X higher bird, dragonfly, butterfly and plant species richness, diversity, and faunal abundance relative to alfalfa and corn types. VWR crop fields also support more obligate grassland bird species and higher populations of dragonfly and butterfly species associated with grasslands and wet meadows. In contrast, the corn and alfalfa types support few or no obligatory grassland birds and mostly non-native insects such as the white cabbage looper (Artogeia rapae L.), the common yellow sulfur butterfly (Colias philodice Godart.), and the mobile and migratory common green darner dragonfly (Anax junius Drury.). In sum, the VWR perennial native grass crop type offers a special opportunity to improve the diversity and abundance of grassland bird species, beneficial insect species, and many native plant species within agricultural landscapes.

ObjectiveThis study assessed butterfly diversity within an urban educational landscape, specifically focusing on the ICAR–National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI) campus in Karnal, Haryana, India. The campus provides a mosaic of ecological niches including open grasslands, lawns, agricultural plots, managed gardens, and scattered patches of trees and shrubs, which contribute to the presence of a wide range of butterfly species.MethodologyButterfly surveys were conducted from June 2023 to May 2024 using the Pollard Walk method along five fixed line transects ranging from 350 to 1000 m in length during the peak activity hours (7:00–14:00) encompassing various habitat types. Seasonal variations in butterfly species richness, abundance, and diversity were analyzed using one-way ANOVA across four seasons: summer, monsoon, post-monsoon, and winter. To identify seasonal patterns in butterfly assemblages, hierarchical cluster analysis was employed to group the seasons based on similarities in species composition.ResultA total of 1,737 individual butterflies representing 38 species, 29 genera and five families were recorded. Nymphalidae was the most diverse family (11 species), followed by Lycaenidae and Pieridae (10 species each), Hesperiidae (4 species), and Papilionidae (3 species). In terms of abundance, Pieridae dominated with 587 individuals, followed by Lycaenidae (530), Nymphalidae (236), Hesperiidae (221), and Papilionidae (163). Zizeeria karsandra was the most common species, while four species were recorded as ‘unique singletons,’ each represented by a single individual. Monthly species richness exhibited bi-annual peaks in October (29 species) and April (35 species). Significant seasonal variations (p < 0.05) were observed in species richness, population abundance and diversity, with the highest species richness recorded in summer (36) and the lowest in winter (28). Hierarchical cluster analysis among seasons, based on the Jaccard similarity index using the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA), revealed a higher similarity of butterfly assemblages between the monsoon and post-monsoon season.ConclusionThe study highlights significant seasonal variations in butterfly communities in an urban ecosystem, with marked differences in species richness and abundance across seasons. The occurrence of rare, legally protected, and IUCN-listed species underscores the ecological importance of urban green spaces and reinforces the need for their conservation and effective management.

(1) Background: Urban parks play a critical role in conserving biodiversity within city landscapes, yet the effects of fine-scale microhabitat heterogeneity remain poorly understood. This study examines how land cover and vegetation unit type within parks influence butterfly diversity. (2) Methods: From July to September 2019 and June to September 2020, adult butterflies were surveyed in 27 urban parks across Beijing. We classified vegetation into units based on vertical structure and management intensity, and then applied the patch–matrix framework and landscape metrics to quantify fine-scale heterogeneity in vegetation unit composition and configuration. Generalized linear models (GLM), generalized additive models (GAM), and random forest (RF) models were applied to identify factors influencing butterfly richness (Chao1 index) and abundance. (3) Results: In total, 10,462 individuals representing 37 species, 28 genera, and five families were recorded. Model results revealed that the proportion of park area covered by spontaneous herbaceous areas (SHA), wooded spontaneous meadows (WSM), and the Shannon diversity index (SHDI) of vegetation units were positively associated with butterfly species richness. In contrast, butterfly abundance was primarily influenced by the proportion of park area covered by cultivated meadows (CM) and overall green-space coverage. (4) Conclusions: Fine-scale vegetation patch composition within urban parks significantly influences butterfly diversity. Our findings support applying the patch–matrix framework at intra-park scales and suggest that integrating spontaneous herbaceous zones—especially wooded spontaneous meadows—with managed flower-rich meadows will enhance butterfly diversity in urban parks.

Abstract Within the farmed landscape, trees outside woods (TOWs), such as hedgerows, copses and scattered trees, provide a variety of benefits for wildlife and people, but these are not well understood or recognised. Many TOWs continue to be lost from the landscape. We used butterflies as a model group and explored patterns in their abundance and species richness in relation to the extent and type of TOWs, using data from the UK's Wider Countryside Butterfly Survey. We explored farmers' views of TOWs using an online survey. In general, the predictive power of the statistical models was not high, but some clear patterns emerged. Small woodlands were positively associated with overall butterfly abundance and species richness, especially in more arable landscapes. Higher numbers of ancient trees were associated with higher butterfly species richness. Hedgerows and woody strips had a positive effect on five of seven common species studied. As woodland increased in the landscape, up to a certain level, so did the abundance of meadow brown Maniola jurtina, speckled wood Parare aegeria, ringlet Aphantopus hyperantus and comma Polygonia c‐album. More ancient woodland in the landscape was associated with more P. aegeria and A. hyperantus butterflies. Farmers viewed TOWs as having a range of benefits, including value for wildlife and the landscape, helping combat climate change, improving soil health and reducing flooding. Time, expense and long‐term commitment dominated farmer concerns around TOWs. Management knowledge and practice tended to be more consistent for hedgerows than for other types of TOWs. Most respondents indicated they would like more information on managing TOWs. Practical implication. Heterogeneous farmed landscapes rich in hedgerows, small woodlands and ancient trees were associated with more abundant and species‐rich butterfly communities than landscapes with few of these features. There was clear recognition by farmers of the benefits of TOWs for farming and the environment. Farmers should be better supported to help deliver these benefits, financially and through knowledge exchange. The protection and restoration of TOWs on farmland should be an essential part of efforts to address the biodiversity and climate crises and at the forefront of farm‐scale and landscape‐scale initiatives.

With the acceleration of urbanization, urban parks play a critical role in protecting biodiversity and maintaining ecosystem stability. As environmental indicator species, butterflies exhibit high sensitivity to environmental changes and anthropogenic disturbances, making them ideal subjects for studying urbanization's impacts on biodiversity. This study focuses on the effects of spatial heterogeneity in the surrounding matrix and its interaction with park resources on butterfly diversity in urban parks. Using Harbin City in Heilongjiang Province, northeastern China, as the study area, we collected data on butterfly species richness and park characteristics from 44 urban parks. Spatial heterogeneity was quantified through landscape metrics across eight spatial scales (100-2500 m), and generalized linear mixed models were employed to analyze butterfly community responses to park characteristics and landscape patterns (composition and configuration) at multiple spatial scales. The results identified 38 butterfly species and 12,885 individuals in Harbin's urban area, with significantly higher species richness in urban fringe zones compared to the city center. Heterogeneity indicators across different spatial scales showed complex relationships with butterfly communities. Butterfly community structure and composition demonstrated highest sensitivity to landscape heterogeneity at 100 and 200 m scales, with optimal model explanatory power for richness, abundance, and diversity being 67.8%, 81.1%, and 38.8% respectively. Key predictors exhibited hierarchical differentiation: richness was primarily positively driven by flowering plant richness and distance from the city center, while being significantly suppressed by park perimeter-area ratio and built-up land patch proportion; abundance was core-driven by flowering plant richness, patch quantity, and patch proximity; diversity relied on the synergistic effects of grassland patch proportion and plant diversity. This study confirms that under intensive urbanization, coordinated management of intra-park habitat resources and surrounding landscape heterogeneity can significantly mitigate urban development-induced butterfly diversity decline, providing a multi-scale planning framework for establishing a "patch-matrix" linkage ecological regulation system in high-latitude cold-region cities.

Urbanization drives biodiversity loss, but green spaces in Pontianak City may still serve as important refuges for butterflies. This study aims to assess butterfly species richness across different habitat types in Pontianak City, including agricultural, agroforestry, city parks, suburban areas, and marginal lands. Data were collected using the time-constrained counts method with a 30-minute observation period per site. Species richness was estimated using Chao1 estimator, diversity was analyzed with Hill numbers, and species composition was compared using the Chao-Sørensen similarity. A total of 438 individuals from 50 species were recorded. Agroforestry, suburban areas, and city parks exhibited relatively similar levels of species richness (28, 26, and 25 species, respectively), with agroforestry demonstrating the highest species richness and diversity (Shannon = 20, Simpson = 16). Conversely, agricultural areas (14 species) and marginal lands (7 species) showed comparatively lower species richness. The highest estimated species richness was found in city park habitats (36 species). Agricultural and marginal lands had the highest species similarity (0.77), whereas agroforestry and marginal lands had the lowest (0.22). These findings highlight agroforestry, suburban areas, and city parks as key conservation areas for butterflies. Habitat management strategies should prioritize these habitats to support butterfly diversity in Pontianak City.

Introduction: Spatial and temporal variation in the environment promotes biological diversity. However, the combined effects of elevation, seasonality, and habitat on butterfly diversity and abundance are still underexplored in rural tropical ecosystems. Butterflies, as bioindicators, offer an excellent opportunity to assess environmental impacts due to their sensitivity to changes in habitat. Objective: This study aimed to evaluate the variation in butterfly abundance and species richness across different habitats, elevations, and seasons in a rural tropical mountain landscape in Costa Rica. Methods: The study was conducted over six months, encompassing dry and rainy seasons. Butterflies were sampled along an elevational gradient (1200, 1500, and 1800 m) across two habitat types: grasslands and riparian forests. Sampling methods included hand nets and fruit baits in each transect and at each site over six months. We made six visits to each site, with seven transects sampled per visit to capture butterflies. We recorded a total of 1421 individuals representing 151 species. Results: The Nymphalidae family exhibited the highest species richness and abundance. Butterfly abundance decreased with increasing elevation, but species richness patterns varied by family. Seasonal variation significantly affected both abundance and richness, with higher values recorded during the rainy season. Based on local abundance, rare species were more commonly found in riparian forests at higher elevations during the wet season. Habitat did not significantly influence overall butterfly abundance or richness. Conclusions: Seasonality and elevation influence butterfly populations in tropical mountain ecosystems. The lack of a significant habitat effect suggests that other ecological variables may mediate habitat impacts. Further studies are required to clarify these dynamics, particularly the role of habitat heterogeneity.

Central European grasslands with low land‐use intensity potentially harbor high biodiversity, but have decreased in extent due to land‐use intensification. We evaluated the success of a 30‐year grassland restoration project on former arable fields in comparison to old permanent grassland in a floodplain in North Germany, taking into account the effects of land‐use intensity and habitat connectivity. We analyzed restoration success by richness and abundance of target species groups of vascular plants and butterflies. Restoration was successful in establishing common plant species of agricultural grasslands. However, restoration failed to recover plant species of wet grasslands with respect to both richness and cover, which may be explained by the lack of wet site conditions on former arable fields. In general, higher land‐use intensity reduced species richness and cover of mesotrophic and wet‐grassland plants, while smaller distances to old permanent grassland increased richness of all but wet‐grassland species. Butterfly species, including grassland specialists and red‐list species, were favored by high cover of flowering forbs and, coherent to this, low land‐use intensity. Surprisingly, higher cover of old permanent grassland in the surrounding landscape decreased species richness of butterflies, possibly due to a dilution effect. In conclusion, we recommend recreating wet microsites and introducing seeds of specialist and rare forbs for better restoration success, in addition to sowing of diverse seed mixtures. It is also important to keep land‐use intensity low to allow for higher cover of host and nectar plants, which is vitally important for promoting butterflies, especially grassland specialists and red‐list species.

Effects of landscape edge heterogeneity on biodiversity in grassland restoration context.