Bushmeat Trade Research Articles

Assessing Wildlife Consumption Awareness and the Attitudes of the Local Lambwe Valley Community towards Ruma National Park, Kenya

The study was conducted around Ruma National Park within Lambwe Valley in Kenya. The study fulfils the gap of knowledge about wildlife consumption awareness and attitudes of the local Lambwe valley community towards the park. It is believed that understanding the level of awareness and community attitude would provide imperative information that could contribute to wildlife conservation within the park. The key objective of the study was to establish how the locals perceive the national park and their level of awareness of illegal wildlife consumption in the area. The study adopted survey design using both structured questionnaires and focus group discussions to collect information from the local community. In order to disseminate questionnaires, simple random technique was further used to select the respondents. The respondents comprised households living adjacent to the national park. Structured questionnaire interviews were complimented with focus group discussions in order to gather more information and to collect diverse views. The data collected was subjected to descriptive and inferential tests. The study established that majority of the local community had negative attitude towards the park and did not require the park within their locality. Local community were aware that snaring of wildlife took place in and around the park and majority believed the future of the park was bleak. Illegal wildlife hunters were mainly from the local community and the status of wildlife numbers outside the park was declining. Majority were also not aware about Kenya’s wildlife laws prohibiting illegal hunting and bushmeat consumption. The study concludes and recommends that local communities in the area should be sensitized and educated on Kenya’s wildlife laws specifically laws relating to illegal hunting and bushmeat consumption and trade. Creating local awareness on the benefits of wildlife conservation without tangible benefits from the park might not influence attitude change and deter wildlife utilization in the area. New policies could be formulated for integrated park management where local community, especially the youth, could actively participate in wildlife conservation. Developing and promoting alternative forms of tourism in the area could bring benefits to the local community thus leading to attitude change and alternative source of livelihood.

Road development and the geography of hunting by an Amazonian indigenous group: consequences for wildlife conservation.

Protected areas are essential for conservation of wildlife populations. However, in the tropics there are two important factors that may interact to threaten this objective: 1) road development associated with large-scale resource extraction near or within protected areas; and 2) historical occupancy by traditional or indigenous groups that depend on wildlife for their survival. To manage wildlife populations in the tropics, it is critical to understand the effects of roads on the spatial extent of hunting and how wildlife is used. A geographical analysis can help us answer questions such as: How do roads affect spatial extent of hunting? How does market vicinity relate to local consumption and trade of bushmeat? How does vicinity to markets influence choice of game? A geographical analysis also can help evaluate the consequences of increased accessibility in landscapes that function as source-sink systems. We applied spatial analyses to evaluate the effects of increased landscape and market accessibility by road development on spatial extent of harvested areas and wildlife use by indigenous hunters. Our study was conducted in Yasuní Biosphere Reserve, Ecuador, which is impacted by road development for oil extraction, and inhabited by the Waorani indigenous group. Hunting activities were self-reported for 12–14 months and each kill was georeferenced. Presence of roads was associated with a two-fold increase of the extraction area. Rates of bushmeat extraction and trade were higher closer to markets than further away. Hunters located closer to markets concentrated their effort on large-bodied species. Our results clearly demonstrate that placing roads within protected areas can seriously reduce their capacity to sustain wildlife populations and potentially threaten livelihoods of indigenous groups who depend on these resources for their survival. Our results critically inform current policy debates regarding resource extraction and road building near or within protected areas.

Synthesising bushmeat research effort in West and Central Africa: A new regional database

Unsustainable hunting threatens both biodiversity and local livelihoods. Despite high levels of research effort focused on understanding the dynamics of bushmeat trade and consumption, current research is largely site specific. Without synthesis and quantitative analysis of available case studies, the national and regional characteristics of bushmeat trade and consumption remain largely speculative, impeding efforts to inform national and regional policy on bushmeat trade. Here we describe the structure and content of the West and Central African bushmeat database which holds quantitative data on bushmeat sales, consumption and offtake for 177 species from 275 sites across 11 countries in two regions, spanning three decades of research. Despite this wealth of available data, we found important biases in research effort. The majority of studies in West and Central Africa have collected market data, which although providing a useful record of bushmeat sales, are limited in their ability to track changes in hunting offtake. In addition, few data exist for West Africa, and few studies have tracked changes over time, using repeat sampling. With new initiatives in the regions to track bushmeat hunting, this database represents an opportunity to synthesise current and future data on bushmeat hunting, consumption and trade in West and Central Africa, identify gaps in current understanding, and systematically target future monitoring efforts.

The uncovered volumes of bushmeat commercialized in the Amazonian trifrontier between Colombia, Peru & Brazil

The Importance of bushmeat trade in Amazonian towns has been very little studied, either because it is thought to be insignificant or due to the context of illegality. Based on preliminary field work to identify the main stakeholders involved and the existing trade routes, our study aimed at describing the invisible bushmeat trade using a participatory monitoring protocol in Leticia and Puerto Nariño in Colombia, Tabatinga, Benjamin Constant and Atalaia do Norte in Brazil, and Santa Rosa and Caballococha in Peru. The monitoring system included two key levels of the market chain: hunters and market traders. With the support of our research team, the hunters and traders self monitored their activities during 60 days and 20 days respectively during two hydro-climatic periods. Our study shows that the most hunted species are paca, tericaya turtle and currassows while the most commercialized species are paca, tapir, collared peccary and the red brocket deer. We registered a total of 13 tons of bushmeat captured by hunters (from 29 species) and 6.7 tons of bushmeat sold by market sellers (from 19 species). We extrapolated this data to a year and to the total numbers of stakeholders involved in the trade and found that 473 tons of bushmeat are traded per year in market places from the main Tri frontier towns, which taken to the total urban population size of the area, equals to 3.2 kg/hab/year, a number that is comparable to those found in Central African urban settings.

The illegal commercial bushmeat trade in Central and West Africa

All of the great apes of Africa, chimpanzees, bonobos and gorillas are endangered by human population growth, habitat destruction, illegal trafficking of apes for entertainment, private zoos and hunting. Bushmeat trade is the commercial hunting and selling of wild animals for food. It is very different from subsistence hunting, which comprises killing animals for food for a family or village. Once money is involved, anything goes. Even mothers with babies are shot which is, of course, tantamount to killing the goose that lays the golden egg. It is not sustainable. In the Congo Basin and elsewhere in Central and West Africa this is one of the most serious threats to chimpanzees and other endangered animals, which will result in ever more species becoming endangered.

The role of bushmeat in a West African agricultural landscape

AbstractThere is little information on the changing role of bushmeat hunting in the agricultural areas of West Africa. We assessed the status and role of bushmeat hunting and rural consumption in three communities in Ghana, through household surveys (n = 250), and interviews with hunters (n = 69), eatery owners (n = 18) and bushmeat traders (n = 3). Hunting was embedded within dynamic livelihood strategies, with two broad categories of hunters identified: a large group who targeted pests on their own farms using traps, and a smaller group of professional hunters. The professional hunters included a group of young men who hunted with dogs, and another group of older firearm hunters who tended to be members of Hunters’ Associations. All professional hunters reported a decline in bushmeat availability and expressed concerns about the viability of hunting as a livelihood. The frequency of consumption of bushmeat increased with distance from the region's main urban centre, Kumasi, but bushmeat was not found to be a major component of the diet in any of the villages. Few men self-identified as hunters, although bushmeat hunting continued to play an important role in the rural economy, primarily for crop protection. Conservation efforts need to consider the full spectrum of hunting behaviours. Specific measures should target forest-based hunters, who are more likely to damage forest ecosystems than crop pest hunters but also show more concern for the sustainability of hunting, and commitment to hunting as an institution.

Do large birds experience previously undetected levels of hunting pressure in the forests of Central and West Africa?

AbstractThe commercial bushmeat trade threatens numerous species in the forests of West and Central Africa. Hunters shoot and trap animals, which are transported to rural and urban markets for sale. Village-based surveys of hunter offtake and surveys of bushmeat markets have shown that mammals and reptiles are affected most, followed by birds. However, hunters also consume some animals in forest camps and these may have been overlooked in surveys that have focused on bushmeat extracted from the forest. A number of studies have used indirect methods, such as hunter diaries, to quantify this additional offtake but results can be difficult to verify. We examined discarded animal remains at 13 semi-permanent hunting camps in the Ebo Forest, Cameroon, over 272 days. Twenty-one species were identified from 49 carcasses, of which birds constituted 55%, mammals 43% and other taxa 2%. The mammals identified were typical of those recorded in previous bushmeat studies but we recorded several species of birds rarely recorded elsewhere. Offtake of bird species increased with mean body mass. We extrapolated our results to the 34 known hunting camps in the Ebo Forest and estimated that a minimum of 97 birds are hunted annually in a catchment area of c. 479 km2. We conclude that some bird species may be hunted more frequently than previous research suggests and this has important conservation implications for larger-bodied species such as raptors and hornbills.

How could the bushmeat trade in the Kilombero Valley of Tanzania be regulated? Insights from the rural value chain

AbstractBushmeat trade is a threat to biodiversity in Africa. Information about the bushmeat value chain can inform conservation policies, yet such knowledge is lacking for most of East Africa. We examine the structure and organization of bushmeat markets in three villages in the Kilombero Valley of Tanzania, where illegal hunting is widespread. We base our analysis on 1,855 observations of trade during 1 year (2008–2009) and questionnaire interviews with 325 individuals involved in the trade in 2011. Our results reveal that the trade is large-scale both in volume (1,100 animals, equivalent to 370,000 kg meat per year) and local turnover (USD 210,000 per year) and that several threatened species are hunted. There are no patron–client relationships and hunters, traders and retailers, which are the main actors involved, conduct only basic product upgrading (drying and making packages). The value chain is characterized by governance problems, including widespread rent-seeking and violent enforcement. Although hunting is open-access, lack of access to firearms constitutes an entry barrier, curbing supply and enabling actors to realize supernormal profits. Decentralization of management rights and responsibilities to communities, supplemented by improved firearms control, appears the most realistic option for regulating the trade and preventing further declines of wildlife.

Hunting and trading bushmeat in the Kilombero Valley, Tanzania: motivations, cost-benefit ratios and meat prices

SUMMARYBushmeat hunting in the savannah biomes of East Africa is often considered to be subsistence oriented and undertaken as a gap-filler in the lean agricultural season. The price of bushmeat is furthermore often thought uniform regardless of species, but if hunting is commercially oriented and price premiums are paid for particular species this needs to be considered. This paper investigates these issues in the Kilombero Valley of Tanzania, based on one year of market data and interviews with 80 hunters, 169 traders and 67 retailers. Motivations were overwhelmingly commercial and the bushmeat trade constituted a year-round income generating activity. Monte Carlo simulations based on the deterrence model revealed average cost-benefit ratios of 0.15–0.43 for hunters, 0.56–0.62 for traders and 0.88 for retailers, and a 12–401 fold increase in likelihood of apprehension may be required to render the trade unprofitable. Willingness-to-pay data showed that elephant, buffalo, hippopotamus, puku, bushpig and warthog meat were preferred. Enhanced enforcement may thus drive prices for these species higher, encouraging hunters to seek ways around constraints. Community-based wildlife management and improved firearms control may be the most pragmatic ways to regulate the trade.

Local-scale dynamics and local drivers of bushmeat trade.

Bushmeat management policies are often developed outside the communities in which they are to be implemented. These policies are also routinely designed to be applied uniformly across communities with little regard for variation in social or ecological conditions. We used fuzzy-logic cognitive mapping, a form of participatory modeling, to compare the assumptions driving externally generated bushmeat management policies with perceptions of bushmeat trade dynamics collected from local community members who admitted to being recently engaged in bushmeat trading (e.g., hunters, sellers, consumers). Data were collected during 9 workshops in 4 Tanzanian villages bordering Serengeti National Park. Specifically, we evaluated 9 community-generated models for the presence of the central factors that comprise and drive the bushmeat trade and whether or not models included the same core concepts, relationships, and logical chains of reasoning on which bushmeat conservation policies are commonly based. Across local communities, there was agreement about the most central factors important to understanding the bushmeat trade (e.g., animal recruitment, low income, and scarcity of food crops). These matched policy assumptions. However, the factors perceived to drive social-ecological bushmeat trade dynamics were more diverse and varied considerably across communities (e.g., presence or absence of collaborative law enforcement, increasing human population, market demand, cultural preference). Sensitive conservation issues, such as the bushmeat trade, that require cooperation between communities and outside conservation organizations can benefit from participatory modeling approaches that make local-scale dynamics and conservation policy assumptions explicit. Further, communities' and conservation organizations' perceptions need to be aligned. This can improve success by allowing context appropriate policies to be developed, monitored, and appropriately adapted as new evidence is generated.

Using next-generation sequencing methods to isolate and characterize 24 simple sequence repeat loci in mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx)

Mandrill is a vulnerable Old World primate living in the rain-forests of central Africa. This species is currently facing two major human encroachments: habitat destruction and bush-meat trade. The total population size remains unknown in the wild, but it is suspected to have recently declined. We developed and characterized 24 new polymorphic microsatellite markers from the next-genera- tion sequencing data using 66 individuals from a wild population. The number of alleles per locus ranged from 2 to 9 and the observed heterozygosity from 0.12 to 0.92. Conveniently, the developed markers did not amplify human DNA avoiding cross-species contamination. These microsatellites will be especially useful for studies based on sensible DNA, including population genetics analyses to studies in behavioral ecology.

Entangled Realms: Hunters and Hunted in the Dzanga-Sangha Dense Forest Reserve (APDS), Central African Republic

Researchers across disciplines have struggled to understand the entanglement of human-environment relationships. Nowhere are these entanglements more evident than among human communities situated within protected areas. These communities often rely on natural resources, such as wildlife, as an integral component of daily livelihoods. The success of human livelihood strategies and the continued presence of wildlife hinges upon our ability to understand inherently dependent relationships between animals and humans. Using the bushmeat trade as an entry point, this article draws on theoretical developments in anthropology, specifically mutual ecologies and data-based approaches to wildlife management, to examine relationships between hunters and hunted in the Dzanga-Sangha Dense Forest Reserve (APDS).

Threats from trading and hunting of pottos and angwantibos in Africa resemble those faced by slow lorises in Asia

Hunting and trading of wildlife, including primates, has been occurring for thou- sands of years. However, the rapid escalation of the bushmeat trade and the trade in live animals and body parts in recent years have come to present a serious threat to biodiversity. Asian slow lorises Nycticebus spp. are at a high risk of extinction due to their trade in wildlife markets. The African lorisiformes (pottos Perodicticus spp. and angwantibos Arctocebus spp.) are closely re - lated to Asian slow lorises, and show similar behaviour and ecology. Here, we present an ex - ploratory study comparing the threats faced by African and Asian lorises. Furthermore, we exam- ine the overall trend of the African lorisid trade. We conducted a comprehensive literature review covering all African lorisid range countries, analysed export and import data from the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) database, distrib- uted questionnaires to researchers in the field and carried out an in-depth questionnaire in Nige- ria. Pottos were the most commonly hunted primate in the Nigerian focal villages studied herein, and 72% of respondents reported eating their meat at least once a month. The questionnaire responses from researchers reported on all types of trade, varying across different areas. The lit- erature reported hunting of Perodicticinae, but it did not mirror our findings from the 2 question- naires. Increased research into Asian slow lorises has revealed trade to be a real impediment to their conservation, and our data strongly suggest that the threat is of equal importance to the con- servation of their African counterparts.

Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence: Discovery of a large, continuous population of Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii in the Central Uele region of northern DRC

With great ape populations in decline across much of their range, it is crucial to obtain a global picture of their distribution and abundance, in order to guide conservation activities and to provide baseline data against which to monitor their trends. Although great apes are popular, charismatic species, we still do not possess a complete understanding of their distribution and abundance, which hinders their long-term protection. We highlight this problem by providing information on the distribution and abundance of the Eastern chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in the northern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), a region which has until now received little attention. We conducted a standing crop nest survey in the Bili area in 2005 and exploratory reconnaissance walks (recces) across the Bas-Uele region between 2004 and 2009. At Bili, the nest encounter rate in the remote forest was 4.84nests per km (CI=2.78–8.55) and in the area closer to the road it was 1.92nests per km (CI=1.08–3.43). In 2012, we repeated a part of the original transect survey and found that the nest encounter rate had remained stable over that period. On our recce walks across the region, we encountered chimpanzee nests in all forests surveyed, and within 13km of the largest population centers. Our results suggest that the Central Uele landscape and neighboring regions are home to one of the largest remaining continuous populations of Eastern chimpanzees, that extends across at least 50,000km2, likely representing thousands of individuals, but which is falling under increasing pressure from habitat destruction, mining and the bushmeat trade. This population has until now remained hidden from researchers and is not protected. Our results reflect gaps in our current understanding of ape distribution and abundance, and highlight the importance of obtaining more sound and complete data before assessing species status and making recommendations to guide conservation efforts.

Preliminary Information of Laboratorial Tantalum Recovery and Considerations for a Potential Solution for Conflict Mineral and Wildlife Conservation

Tantalum is a rarely occurring transition metal which is chiefly used to manufacture capacitors for electronic appliances such as mobile phones. The demand for tantalum is expected to show an annual growth rate of about 5%; however, tantalum produced in the Democratic Republic of Congo is considered a conflict mineral due to illegal mining which is accelerating the extinction of lowland gorillas. Although tantalum recycling is desirable, the recycling technology has been poorly developed. Phase separation was applied to recover tantalum. It was expected that a copper phase could absorb tantalum, but tantalum was slightly transferred into an iron-rich phase in the Cu-Fe-C system. When ferric oxide was applied as an auxiliary, the tantalum was concentrated as precipitate on the surface of the iron-rich phase. In terms of practical application, a theoretical prediction suggests that the addition of a reductant will make it possible to recover tantalum as a high-purity powder. Since conflict, illicit exploration and hunting (bush-meat trade) have caused a decline in the population of wild animals, it is considered that a feasible tantalum recycling system will be helpful in solving such problems.

Ethnicity and Perceptions of Bushmeat Hunting Inside Lagoas de Cufada Natural Park (LCNP), Guinea-Bissau

West African managed forests are zones where domestic stock does not thrive, and bushmeat continues to be a major source of animal protein for many people. Given rising human populations across Africa the harvesting and trade in bushmeat is unsustainable, resulting in dramatic declines of local populations of wild animals. Accessing local villagers’ perceptions on bushmeat hunting, consumption and trade is important for gaining a better understanding of attitudes towards wildlife in the protected area of Lagoas de Cufada Natural Park (LCNP), Guinea-Bissau. Positive attitudes regarding wildlife may ultimately determine if there is the capacity for sustaining populations of wild animals within LCNP boundaries. Thus, our study of perceptions and attitudes on bushmeat hunting, consumption and trade on the part of the Beafada community – the major ethnic group present in the LCNP (77.4%) – and the Balanta – the second most populous group (8.7%) - was important for understanding how local communities will influence the future of wildlife inside LCNP. Results come from a range of complementary qualitative and quantitative approaches consisting of: i) survey questionnaires (N=258); ii) in-depth interviews (N=40 men); iii) six focus-groups (N=62 women); and, iv) non-participant observation. Our results has shown that the Beafada as professional hunters rely on bushmeat hunting as a source of protein but particularly as a source of income while the Balanta rely on bushmeat mainly as a source of protein. It was expected that these two subsistence groups would value and perceive wildlife differently, although gender tended to express the most distinct differences in attitudes. Religion also appeared to underlie some major differences in the local preferences of species for consumption. Hunting and the bushmeat trade represent major threats to wildlife in Guinea-Bissau; understanding their contribution to livelihoods and perceptions of protected areas may help ensure the persistence of wildlife inside LCNP.

The Role of Non-Wood Forest Products in Poverty Alleviation and Food Security in Urban Ghana

Non Wood Forest Product (NWFP) is as old as the existence of humans and has gained increasing importance. The study focused on processing NWFPs in urban Ghana with special reference to the bushmeat commodity chain that supplies the urban areas. It described the existing forms of bushmeat processing requirements and constraints. It also examined the contribution of bushmeat to poverty alleviation and food security through its use, processing and trade as a NWFP. Methods for data collection involved the use of qualitative research approach in form of selective case study approach. In line with this approach, the study used both participant observation combined with focus group discussion to collect information from a cross section of primary actors in the bushmeat trade. Results showed that processing bushmeat for sale vary from place to place. It is conveyed to the major markets either smoked or fresh. Those using bushmeat for medicinal purposes cut the meat into various parts and dry them for their clientele. Results also showed that bushmeat trading activities involve a chain of actors composed of hunters, wholesalers and chop bar owners/retailers. This livelihood activity contributes highly to food security and household incomes of actors of the trade.

Annotated checklist and fisheries interactions of cetaceans in Togo, with evidence of Antarctic minke whale in the Gulf of Guinea

Based on strandings and captures, 9 cetacean species, including 6 odontocetes and 3 mysticetes, are documented (photos and specimens) in Togo's coastal waters (newly-recorded species marked with an asterisk): Antarctic minke whale (Balaenoptera bonaerensis*), Bryde's whale (Balaenoptera brydei or B. edeni), humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae), sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus), pygmy sperm whale (Kogia breviceps*), short-finned pilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus*), pantropical spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuata*), common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and common dolphin Delphinus sp. An anecdotal sighting record for killer whale (Orcinus orca) is considered reliable. The lack of Sousa teuszii records in Togo is consistent with its apparent contemporaneous absence in Ghana. The B. bonaerensis specimen, entangled in a purse seine set on small pelagics, is a first record for the Gulf of Guinea. The occurrence of this Southern Ocean species north of the equator underscores the severe gaps in our understanding of cetacean distribution off western Africa. The majority of artisanal fishermen operating in Togolese coastal waters are of Ghanaian origin and are thought to promote trade and consumption of cetacean bushmeat. Because captures are illegal, enforced with some success in the main fishing centers, covert landings of cetaceans are exceedingly difficult to monitor, quantify or sample. Concern is expressed about pollution of Togo's coastal waters with heavy metals due to phosphorite mining and export from the coastal basin near Hahotoé and Kpogamé.

Impact Assessment on By-catch Artisanal Fisheries: Sea Turtles and Mammals in Cameroon, West Africa

The by-catch assessment has been carried out along Cameroon coastline to map artisanal fishing effort and quantify impact of by-catch on sea turtles and marine mammals during three months from June to September 2011 and specific objectives include: - To interview fishermen in various fishing villages or ports in Cameroon regarding fishing effort and catch. - To estimate fishing gears used in these fishing ports. - To evaluate impacts of by-catch on marine mammals and sea turtles. In total 30 fishing ports were been planned but 23 were covered with 932 files in total (245 long forms and 685 short forms). In total we have 4121boats (none motorized and motorized) and the common gears used are gillnet and surround seine. The results reveal that, yearly around 1228 turtles with back (green, hawksbill and olive) were caught and 13 Leatherback; most not intentionally. But in Sandje port we noted the intentional catch by local fishermen with around 400 individuals per year for international commercial uses. These numbers are low according to certain data on sea turtles surveys along Cameroon coast. About cetaceans and manatee we had the following data 97 and 292 respectively for each group, but most manatees are caught intentionally for bush meat trade. The survey was limited in time and lack of baseline information on the issue but in future it could be good to involve more permanent data collectors and scientific observers. These results must be feedback to official services for good monitoring of marine faunal and their ecosystem.

Factors Determining the Choice of Hunting and Trading Bushmeat in the Kilombero Valley, Tanzania

Regulation of illegal bushmeat trade is a major conservation challenge in Africa. We investigated what factors are most likely to induce actors in the bushmeat trade to shift to an alternative occupation by conducting a choice experiment with 325 actors in the bushmeat trade in the Kilombero Valley, Tanzania. Specifically, we asked respondents to choose between hunting or trading bushmeat and alternative salary-paying work, in a set of hypothetical scenarios where the attributes of these alternatives were varied and included measures of command and control, price of substitute meat, daily salary in the work option, and whether or not cows were donated to the respondent. We modeled the choice contingent on socioeconomic characteristics. The magnitude of fines and patrolling frequency had a significant but very low negative effect on the probability of choosing to engage in hunting or trading bushmeat compared with the salary of an alternative occupation. Donation of livestock and the price of substitute meats in the local market both affected the choice significantly in a negative and a positive direction, respectively. The wealthier a household was the more likely the respondent was to choose to continue hunting or trading bushmeat. On the margin, our results suggest that given current conditions in the Kilombero Valley on any given day 90% of the respondents would choose salary work at US$3.37/day over their activities in the bushmeat trade, all else equal.