Stone Building Materials Research Articles

High Temperature Effects on Global Heritage Stone Resources: A Systematic Review

Throughout history, natural stone has been a crucial building material due to its strength, durability, and aesthetic qualities. Today, it continues to be a valuable resource, representing both a cultural heritage asset and a significant economic material. However, the increasing frequency of heat waves and fires driven by climate change poses a growing threat to stone building materials. This paper reviews the scientific attention given to the effects of high temperatures on Global Heritage Stone Resources (GHSRs), an international classification designed to enhance the recognition and status of building stones. Through a systematic SCOPUS search with refined filtering criteria, the study aims to quantify the existing research on these heritage stones. The search applied the standardized lithotype terms from GHSR publications to ensure consistency, followed by the exclusion of irrelevant terms when identified. Additionally, a relevance filter was applied to restrict the number of articles per lithotype and ensure that only the most pertinent studies were considered. Key findings from the literature reveal that exposure to high temperatures (ranging from 200 °C to 900 °C) significantly affected the studied GHSRs, leading to thermal micro-fissuring, increased porosity, and changes in water absorption, which compromise the mechanical properties of the stones. Moreover, these conditions can result in irreversible chemical transformations, exacerbating the deterioration of cultural heritage assets. The study emphasizes the critical need for research to better understand how these stone materials behave when exposed to high temperatures. It also provides a relevant framework for future investigations aimed at predicting and mitigating the effects of external threats such as fires.

Use of Computerised X-ray Tomography in the Study of the Fabrication Methods and Conservation of Ceramics, Glass and Stone Building Materials

This work will review and discuss the use of computerised X-ray tomography (CXT) for analysing ancient, manufactured items, like stone building materials, glass and ceramics. It will consider particular techniques required, and/or of benefit, for CXT of heritage materials, such as special precautions during the experimentation to ensure there is no damage to the materials, special imaging methods such as elemental-specific imaging, and sample-specific image analysis requirements. This study shows how the knowledge of internal features, particularly pores, discerned from CXT can be used to reverse engineer the artefact fabrication process. CXT can be used to obtain information on both the raw materials (such as types and impurities) and fabrication techniques used. These abilities can then be used to establish technological evolution and the incidence of ancient behaviours like recycling and allow the linking of particular items to specific production sites. It will also be seen how CXT can aid the development of effective conservation techniques. This work will also consider how conclusions drawn from CXT data can be amended or augmented by the use of complementary non-destructive characterisation methods, such as gas overcondensation.

Structural Static Evaluation of Historic Stone Building (Case Study: Zahdeh Building in Hebron Old City)

The historical buildings are of great importance, as they represent the architectural heritage and the image of history.Accurate structural analysis of stone buildings is a real challenge, as the mechanical properties of stone and mortarunits are different and unavailable. The aim of the research is assessment historical stone buildings. An experimentalstudy was conducted to determine the mechanical properties of stone building materials and to modelling validation.A numerical modelling was carried out through a non-linear static analysis based on a macro finite element model,using ANSYS. The result obtained of the model of Zahdeh building is that building can bear its loads in its currentcondition, and it also has the ability to bear loads equivalent to two floors. The proposed methods, are suitable forstructural assessment process and can be applied to similar building models to preserve, both architectural heritageand historic buildings.

Implementation of a non-destructive method to assess weathering deterioration of sandstones in cultural heritage

This paper proposes a non-destructive approach based on the Equotip hardness tester to assess weathering deterioration in a protected sandstone monument located in the historic centre of Camerino (Italy). The approach is tested on one sandstone column, where various forms of weathering, such as discolouration, scaling and loss of stone volume, are observed. The mechanical characterisation with Equotip was performed on 24 measuring points, systematically distributed in the column. Innovatively, the two probes available from Proceq (Proceq© 2010) were used to assess differences among surface and in-depth hardness values of the column. In addition, an un-weathered rock core from the original extraction site was also analysed and compared with the rock matrix of the column. The obtained results show a 15% hardness reduction from depth to the surface of the column and a 25% overall hardness reduction with respect to the fresh sandstone core samples. Equotip results were coupled with grain size analyses, mercury intrusion porosimetry, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffractometry results, and a correlation between hardness and grain size was evaluated. By combining these approaches, it was possible to identify the processes that occurred during weathering: (a) freeze-thaw cycles that caused a decrease in micropore volume and an increase in macropores connected with low Equotip values; (b) iron oxide and sulphuric acid released from pyrite oxidation contribute to the dissolution and precipitation of calcium carbonate, which can be rearranged in the outer and surface macroporosity. The quantitative approach proposed in this study may be a valid low-cost and quick tool to assess weathering heterogeneities on building stone materials and to provide insights for effective preservation strategies of historical monuments.

Predicted Dynamic of Biodeterioration in Cultural Heritage Stones Due to Climate Changes in Humid Tropical Regions—A Case Study on the Rhodotorula sp. Yeast

The recent global warming started at the end of the 19th century, causing an increase in the average temperature of Earth and posing environmental, social, economic, and cultural repercussions. Much tangible cultural heritage is composed of natural stones, which decay due to the combination of chemical, physical, and biological factors. Biodeterioration leads to a loss of the performance requirements and socio-economic value of stone building materials. In the future, the dynamics of biodeterioration will hypothetically vary. This study aims to shed light on this variation by comparing biodeterioration under historical climatic conditions (1995–2014) with a future scenario defined by the IPCC SSP5-8.5 for the reference period 2080–2099. The material tested is Pedra de Ançã (PA), a candidate for World Heritage Stone. Climatic chambers were used to simulate the historical and predicted environmental conditions. The scope of this investigation is to understand the growth dynamic of the biodeteriogen Rhodotorula sp. and to study the morphological and aesthetic variations of stone surfaces. Biochemical and micro-topographic analyses highlighted the metabolic activity of the population proliferating under distinct environmental conditions, revealing better adaptability of Rhodotorula sp. and higher biocorrosion in the historical climate status with respect to the future.

Chemical Composition of Hydrophobic Coating Solutions and Its Impact on Carbonate Stones Protection and Preservation

The decay diagnosis and conservation of stone-built heritage is becoming a worldwide concern, especially when stone decay causes chromatic changes in the original stone aesthetics, which directly impacts its sociocultural value. Among all the causes of stone decay, water action is identified as the major cause of stone decay and chromatic changes in stone building materials; hence, protective eco-friendly hydrophobic coatings are the efficient and fundamental options to prevent penetrating water into the stone. This paper aims to contribute to tackling water action on natural building stones by studying three different commercial hydrophobic coatings and finding out the correlation between the effectivity, compatibility, and durability of these coatings and the physical, chemical, and mineralogical features of four distinct types of limestone, one calcitic dolomite, four kinds of marble, and one granitoid. Nine different natural stones have been chosen due to their variations in physical, chemical, and mineralogical natures. A multi-analytical approach was adopted through digital microscopy and colourimetry assays to assess the compatibility of the hydrophobic coatings, accelerating ageing in climatic chambers to assess their durability, optical tensiometer analyses to evaluate the hydrophobic effectiveness, and h-XRF and XRPD for determining the chemical and mineralogical composition of stone samples. The results obtained demonstrate that the coating composed of silane/siloxane with modified fluorinated additives (FAKOLITH FK-3 Plus Nano) is the most effective, compatible, and durable coating among the selected hydrophobic coatings. These results can be considered the pioneering steps for developing eco-friendly and cost-effective coatings.

Analysis of the Equipment and Technologies for the Enrichment of Crushed Stone From Industrial Waste for the Construction of Transport Infrastructure Facilities

t. The purpose of the study is to select the most promising options for mechanization of the technological process of enrichment of the crushed stone based on the blast furnace slag. To achieve this purpose, the authors used such general scientific methods as literary review, economic and mathematical modeling, optimization theory and search experiment. The main technologies and equipment used to solve the problems of the enrichment of the stone building materials by grain strength are considered. The article proposes optimality criteria that allow comparing the technological processes of enrichment. The authors proposed the optimality criteria that allow comparing the technological processes of enrichment. Based on preliminary search experiments and the results of the analysis of the obtained morphological set, the most promising options for the enrichment of crushed stone based on blast furnace slag are determined

Modern approaches to the construction of anti-filtration elements at the base of hydrotechnical construction

The technologies of the device of anti-filtration elements in ground dams of hydrotechnical construction are considered. Currently, the following problem is relevant, which of the methods of the device of anti-filtration elements is more expedient, profitable and less time-consuming. Promising areas of innovative developments for the construction of underground dams are: the method of jet cementation; the method of injection curtains. A detailed analysis of technologies for the construction of anti-filtration elements at the Sangtudinskaya hydroelectric power station (HPP)-1 is carried out on the example of the jet cementation method. A wide range of non-ground construction materials is used to create anti-filtration elements in ground dams and non-rock foundations of dams. These are stone building materials based on binders, polymer materials, wood and even steel. However, the materials used for anti-filtration devices differ from those used in industrial and civil construction. They may differ in structure, composition, and application technology.

Protection and Management of the Destroyed Heritage in the Old City of Mosul, Northern Iraq

Mosul has been freed from the clutches of terrorists since 2018, yet the city remains in serious need of reconstruction and redevelopment. The current study attempts to determine whether the fragments of damaged structures can be used in the reconstruction of the old city of Mosul, as well as its economic, cultural, and civilizational feasibility. Old-heritage materials have been categorized into four primary categories, which can be used to avoid confusion while disposing of them. The first category includes antique art elements such as struts, gypsum arches, door frames, and windows, the majority of which were less than 200 years old. The second category included items that were more than 200 years old and were discovered in a few locations, including the Great Mosque of Al-Nuri and the Al-Tahera Church. The third category consists of irregularly shaped stone building materials that were extensively employed in the construction of home walls and ceilings and have survived their engineering characteristics for decades. There are two primary types of stone building materials: limestone and gypsum stone. Finally, plaster, a once-common binder, produced enormous quantities of recyclable materials as well as the new mortar that might be utilized in rebuilding. These significant old-heritage materials went unnoticed and were handled haphazardly. Many of them were removed by massive bulldozers, resulting in the dilemma of their destruction and the search for places to discard them. Recycling these old-heritage materials, according to the study, will help to preserve the irreplaceable artifacts embossed with magnificent ornamentation, sketches, and inscriptions. Obtaining antiquities buried beneath these structures that could be 800 years old or older. Taking advantage of low-cost, high-economic-feasibility building materials and abandoning the idea of destroying and discarding them, which costs a lot of money and pollutes the environment. The geotechnical assessment of categories 1, 3, and 4 revealed that they are recyclable. Category 1 showed that the percentage of damage caused by nature does not exceed 1% and 7% as a result of the war. In categories 3 and 4, the proportion of natural damage caused by weathering does not exceed 1%, while the percentage of natural damage caused by war does not exceed 3%.

Pyritization in Stone-Building Materials Modeling of Geochemical Interaction

Stone-building materials, despite their natural origin, must be tested for the concentration of trace elements necessary to assess their impact on the environment and humans. In addition to basic research determining their mineral composition and structural and textural features, it is important to analyze the geochemical interactions between the material matrix and the concentration of elements that have a negative impact on the surrounding natural environment and our health. In the presented study, mineralogical and geochemical studies were carried out on the Carpathian sandstones. It was shown that the studied sandstones are represented by lithic wackes and sublithic arenites. Rocks subject to the secondary process of sulfide mineralization were observed among sublithic arenites. Pyrite in the studied geomaterials took various forms. A detailed geochemical analysis was carried out in the material in which iron sulfides acted as a binder. The research was aimed at identifying possible variations in the concentration of elements, with a particular emphasis on the contact between the silica and mineralized phases. The assessment of the geochemical interaction of iron sulfides with silica at a successively enlarged measurement was carried out using the Mamdani–Assilian fuzzy inference model.

CUTTING STONE BUILDING MATERIALS WITH CUT WHEELS OF CUBIC BORON NITRIDE

The advantage of cutting stone building materials with SSM (synthetic superhard materials) wheels is that, first of all, it is possible to obtain high processing productivity and dimensional stability, which are 3..5 and 50…100 times higher than those of traditional tools based on carborundum, respectively. The study of the process of cutting stone materials with CBN (cubic boron nitrite) wheels is aimed at establishing force dependences, determining the cutting power and heating temperature of the cutting disc during operation. The forces were measured using a tensometric dynamometer UDM-50. To measure and calculate the cutting temperature, a thermoelectric method based on the formation of practically not inertial microthermocouples during cutting was used. The temperature to which the CBN cutting wheel on a metal base is heated is a limiting factor in processing, since when heated to a temperature of 600ºС, the strength of the wheel decreases by half, which can cause its rupture under the action of centrifugal forces, as well as loss of stability and jamming during cutting. In the present study, the wheel temperature was measured after one minute of continuous operation. The values of the component of the cutting force PY, depending on the processing modes, can reach values of the order of 70 N. The values of the component of the cutting force PZ, depending on the processing modes, can reach values of 45 N. The cutting power can be 2800W. The temperature resistance of the wheel (heating time of the wheel up to 600ºС) when cutting dry is maximum 28 minutes, when grinding with cooling of the cutting zone with negative temperature air from a Ranque-Hilsch tube, the temperature resistance is 35 minutes, with ejector cooling of sprayed coolant 37 minutes and with jet-pressure cooling it is 40 minutes. The maximum cutting length is respectively 0.7: 0.8; 0.9 and 2m. The cutting power is 600...2800W.

Does bacterial weathering play a significant role in rock weathering?

Bacterial weathering plays a significant role in rock weathering, yet only a limited number of studies were conducted on this topic. The recent rapid developments in geomicrobiology are expected to increase the pace of research in this area. The extent and duration of the biological weathering processes on mineral and rock samples and minerals preferred by bacteria are still not fully understood due to the wide variety of both bacterial species and rock types. Biological weathering of rock types found in Turkey has also not been studied before. Here, we investigated the effects of two species of bacteria actively contributing to rock weathering on three rock types commonly used as building stone materials in Turkey. Granite, andesite, and limestone samples could interact with Bacillus species (B. subtilis and B. pumilus) in closed system reactors. Samples obtained from these reactors were analysed via scanning electron microscopy (SEM) monitoring to identify morphological features and chemical composition changes. Chemical elements consumed most by bacteria were identified. Changes in the colour index were determined via RGB measurements. The effects of experimental conditions on bacterial growth were monitored via daily optical density measurements. The effects of bacteria on the physical properties of rock samples were also evaluated. B. subtilis and B. pumilus were found to be more aggressive on limestone/andesite and granite, respectively.

Chemical and colorimetric analysis for the characterization of degradation forms and surface colour modification of building stone materials

Historical buildings of Catania city centre (Eastern Sicily, Italy) have been built for centuries using natural stone materials from local resources, including volcanic and carbonate rocks, matched in a peculiar bichromy. Particular attention is here paid on the carbonate rocks, which are generally more susceptible to decay processes. Such stones are sometimes covered by pigmented coatings with decorative purposes as well as protective function. In some cases, these nuances are partially or totally lost due to the decay processes which can also cause a modification of the chemical composition of the stone surface.The aim of this study is to prove the effectiveness of in situ X-ray Portable Fluorescence and colorimetric techniques for the characterization of degradation forms and colour modifications affecting several limestone-made historical buildings of the city centre of Catania.The results obtained, processed by means of multivariate statistical analysis, highlighted that all the stone surfaces exposed outdoor exhibit both chromatic and chemical modifications. In addition, three diverse types of superficial treatments have been identified, being related to different construction periods

Building pathology and environment: Weathering and decay of stone construction materials subjected to a Csa mediterranean climate laboratory simulation

Building stone materials have to satisfy long-term durability requirements in different environments in terms of mechanical strength and resistance to aggressive conditions. Several studies and field observations show that weathering on geo-materials is related to average annual precipitation and temperature.The decay also depends on salts air/soil concentrations and biological agents, but the more harmful impact is given by greenhouse gas (e.g. CO2, SOX, NOX, O3). These last induce the acidification of the rain and runoff waters. Nowadays, decay prediction is required in order to estimate the behaviour of stone materials over time. This research represents a second part of a previous work where the response to weathering of some construction materials used in ancient and contemporary architecture and cultural heritage has been evaluated by a laboratory simulation of hot-summer Csa Mediterranean climate. Simulation consists of accelerate ageing test on climate chamber by reproducing macro (e.g. daily and seasonal cycles of temperature, relative humidity, CO2 air concentration) and micro (e.g. rain, soil capillary rising) environments. Some non-destructive testing were executed to evaluate some physical–mechanical “decay markers” before and after the ageing. Test caused both decreasing and increasing of Leeb D hardness, decreases of permeability and a general decrease of ultrasonic speed, mainly due to the formations of patinas, crusts and efflorescences on the surfaces.

High temperature effects on the properties of a high porosity calcareous stone building material

High temperatures affecting buildings during fires have a potential of impact on the material’s performance. A variety of thermal effects may take place on natural stones in historic buildings, and their investigation in laboratory simulations may be effective to support a reliable diagnosis of fire damage in order to select proper conservation measures. To this aim, this study reports on the high temperature effects on a highly porous calcareous stone. Analytical and microscopic techniques (X-Ray Diffractometry, Thermogravimetry and Differential Scanning Calorimetry, optical microscopy and SEM), were combined in a systematic investigation of chemical-mineralogical and microstructural modifications affecting the stone under increasing temperatures, up to 700 °C. Non-destructive ultrasonic velocity propagation (UPV) test and quantitative evaluations of colour changes and physical parameters relating to the stone microstructure were also performed. The overall findings highlight that thermal effects mainly compromised the aesthetic features of the investigated stone, through colour changes relating to chemical-mineralogical transitions. The damage to the stone microstructure due to thermal dilatations was limited, likely because of the high presence of pore spaces. Fissuring was observed microscopically, and also recorded through porosimetric changes and UPV decreases, but it led to negligible increases of both the open porosity and water uptake.

Modelling the Leachability of Strontium and Barium from Stone Building Materials.

In order that the impact on the environment and human beings can be assessed, it may prove necessary for geochemical research work to entail determinations of concentrations of trace elements in building materials, and it is also likely that this will be a time-consuming and financially-demanding business. Additionally, once basic research has been carried out to determine the mineral composition and structural and textural features, it will then be important to determine concentrations of elements that affect the surrounding natural environment and the health of human beings. This paper thus describes mineralogical and geochemical analyses performed on the stone material that opoka rocks represent. Mineralogical studies have shown that the studied opoka rocks most often have cryptocrystalline silica dispersed among carbonate components. The texture of the rock is slightly porous. Silica in the form of type opal A and CT (cristobalite–tridymite) is the main mineral component of the opoka rocks. Carbonate minerals represented by calcite were an important component in the opoka rocks. Earlier geochemical studies focused on the concentration of Sr and Ba. However, the determination of the leachability of these elements as a function of time is a novelty in this study. Trace elements leached from the material matrix were made subject to determinations. The MATLAB program was used to assess leachability in the cases of both strontium and barium, by reference to the Mamdani–Assilian fuzzy algorithm. The presented work has thus sought to experiment with the use of statistical methods to monitor the effectiveness of geochemical processes taking place over time.

Stone blocks surpluses? Reconstruction of the building process and architectural form of Marina el-Alamein hypogea

The monumental rock-cut tombs of the Graeco-Roman necropolis at the site of Marina el-Alamein on the Egyptian Mediterranean coast, today a sightseeing icon following restoration work by the Polish team, have produced significant information about the town, its inhabitants, and burial traditions. Different aspects of the tombs and their content have already been discussed, but without going into the details of the architectural building process. This paper focuses on ancient quarrying and masonry techniques in an effort to reconstruct the process as applied to the large hypogea. An estimate of the volume of stone material sourced during the execution of the underground parts of these tombs was compared with the reconstructed demand for stone ashlars used in the aboveground superstructures. The issue to be examined in this context is whether the tomb hypogea could have produced a surplus of stone building material, thus serving as a quarry for the city itself.

Preparation of AgCl/ZnO nano-composite for effective antimicrobial protection of stone-made building elements

Microbial corrosion of stone-made materials is an emerging concern for modern building elements; similarly, for preservation of cultural heritage. Herein we developed a simplistic method for the preparation of AgCl/ZnO nano-composite, which was then trialed as a potential protective coating for stone building materials. The results showed that AgCl/ZnO-coated stones are highly efficient in inhibiting bacterial and fungal strains’ growth. The achieved AgCl/ZnO antimicrobial activity remains stable even after prolonged exposure to the natural environment (60-days). Overall, the results indicate that use of AgCl/ZnO nano-composites is a promising strategy able to minimize, or even nullify, bacterial growth and protect building elements threatened by biodeterioration.

VAN BÖLGESİNDEKİ URARTU MERKEZLERİNDE KULLANILAN KAYAÇLARA İLİŞKİN PETROGRAFİK GÖZLEMLER

Van and its vicinity have been a prominent region with settlements recording many civilizations since the earliest periods in history. The most stunning remains of civilizations in this region belong to the Urartian Kingdom, which was established in the centre of Van from the middle of the 9th century BC. The capital city of the Urartian Kingdom was Tushpa (Van Castle), which was established on the Van Castle rock cliffs rising on the eastern shore of Lake Van. In addition to Tushpa, the capital of the Kingdom of Urartu, the architectural remains of many castles, urban settlements, and other architectural structures, including dams and water canals, are extensively observed in the eastern part of Lake Van. Considering the geological structure of this central region, it appears that the Kingdom’s settlements and architectural structures were founded on the Van formation, which consists of Bitlis Metamorphics, Upper Cretaceous Ophiolites and Tertiary deep-sea sediments that form the basement rocks in the region. This study was carried out to determine petrographic characteristics and classify rock types of natural stones used as building materials in Van Castle, Çavuştepe, Ayanis, Toprakkale, Zivistan, Keçikıran Castle, Körzüt Castle and Menua Canal belonging to the Urartian Kingdom. A secondary purpose was to use a geological approach to determine the quarries from which they were extracted. For this purpose, representative natural stone samples were taken from the architectural structures and their remains in the settlement centres of Urartian Kingdom in order to prepare rock thin sections of natural stone samples. The thin sections were examined under polarising petrographic microscope to determine petrographic features and classify the rock types. When the architectural building groups in Urartian settlements are examined, different natural stones were mostly used as building materials. The rock types of these natural stones used in construction of these structures are generally classified under two main groups as igneous and sedimentary origin. Sedimentary rock types such as limestone, travertine and sandstone were preferred as the main building material in settlement centres around the Lake Van Basin. Additionally, igneous rocks types such as gabbro, basalt, andesite and serpentinite were preferred more intensely in centres which are located around the north and western part of Lake Van. At the point of determining the sources of rock types used as natural stone building materials in the Urartian centres, it was concluded that Urartu primarily supplied those materials from the nearest quarry sites. The use of this material is also possible especially from rocky or other nearby areas on which the structure was built. However, in line with the materials used in cuneiform inscriptions and monumental architectural structures such as temples, etc, the supply of building materials was also provided by distant sources. Considering the geology of the region, it is suggested that essential findings were obtained showing that igneous rocks were brought from the areas north and west of Lake Van, while sedimentary rocks are represented by limestones from the southern part of Lake Erçek, and travertine rocks from quarries in the Edremit region.

Accelerate ageing on building stone materials by simulating daily, seasonal thermo-hygrometric conditions and solar radiation of Csa Mediterranean climate

The maintenance plan of ancient and contemporary buildings today takes on strategic importance and should include the identification of climatic environment where the structures are located. Researcher are trying to evaluate the response to weathering of the building materials by accelerated ageing tests. This technique often consists of the “aggravations practice”, by subjecting materials to extreme climate parameters not representative of the real environment conditions. For this reason, this type of ageing presents a lot of criticisms. This research addresses the lacking of literature about the realistic simulation of a determinate environment/climate on building stone materials. The aim of this research is to understand if it is possible to recreate in laboratory the pathologies observed on building stones of ancient monuments from Sardinia (Italy) by simulating the climatic context of location. To do so, samples were undergone to accelerated cycles of thermo-hygrometric conditions and solar radiation for simulating realistic parameters of Csa Mediterranean climate. Monitoring of some physical/mechanical properties before and after ageing indicates an overall decohesion of samples, the appearance of decay patinas and a slight worsening of mechanical resistances. A mathematical equation relates the ageing test duration (6 months) with the hypothetical outdoor exposure quantifiable in ≈18 years for samples evolved to temperature and humidity cycles while ≈3.7 years for the samples subjected to only solar radiation. However, the test should to be reproduced in the natural outdoor environment to correlate and verify the reliability of the obtained data (test the test).