This study aimed to evaluate the effects of diets with Moringa oleifera and Brosimum alicastrum leaf meal on the physicochemical characteristics, antioxidant capacity and fatty acid composition of meat from Mexican Hairless Pigs. Eighteen (18) Mexican Hairless Pigs pigs were used in the study. The pigs were randomly divided into three dietary groups: control diet and two experimental diets supplemented with 10 % Moringa oleifera and Brosimum alicastrum leaf meal, respectively. The results indicated that intramuscular fat was higher (P < 0.05) in meat from Mexican Hairless Pigs fed control diet. Meat from Mexican Hairless Pigs fed Brosimum alicastrum diets presented higher (P < 0.001) α-tocopherol (48.33 μg/g of fat). The 2,2-diphenyl- 1-picrylhydrazyl concentration was higher (P < 0.05) in the meat of pigs supplemented with Moringa oleifera (450.48 μM Trolox/g of DW). Pigs fed Brosimum alicastrum leaf meal were characterized by a higher content of 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) in their meat (P < 0.05) (471.89 μM Trolox/g of DW). Regarding the fatty acid composition, meat from Mexican Hairless Pigs fed Moringa oleifera and Brosimum alicastrum presented higher values (P < 0.001; P < 0.05) of saturated fatty acids and atherogenic and thrombogenic indices. In contrast, the concentrations of monounsaturated fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids, unsaturated fatty acids, the polyunsaturated fatty acids/saturated fatty acids ratio and the monounsaturated fatty acids/saturated fatty acids ratio were higher (P< 0.001; P < 0.05) in meat from the control group. The nutritive value index did not differ (P > 0.05) between treatments. It is concluded that Moringa oleifera and Brosimum alicastrum leaf meal could be used as an Mexican Hairless Pigs feed resource to reduce intramuscular fat in meat.

Aim: Brosimum alicastrum Sw. (Ramón) seed is an underutilized starch source. Ramón seed starch (RSS) has been partially characterized, showing functional properties superior to corn starch. The modification of native starches is useful for obtaining desirable characteristics. HMT is a physical method that may alter the structure of starch by modifying its interaction with water. The study evaluated the effect of HMT on the chemical composition, morphological characteristics, and functional properties of RSS. Methods: RSS, corn, and wheat starches were isolated using a wet milling method. The starches were modified with HMT (10%, 20%, and 30% moisture). Chemical composition of flours and native starches was determined using AOAC methods. Total starch was determined by the AACC method, and amylose content was analyzed using the assay with DMSO, Concanavalin A, and amylolytic hydrolysis. Morphological characteristics were observed using scanning electron microscopy. Functional properties [solubility index (SI), water absorption capacity (WAC), and swelling power (SP)] of starches were determined using gravimetric methods. Results: RSS had higher mineral content (0.9%), total carbohydrates (98.5%), dietary fiber (11.2%), and lower protein content (0.2%) and total starch (82.0%) than wheat and corn starches. RSS yield was 31.2% and showed small granules (6.3 ± 1.4–11.5 ± 1.3 µm), with oval-spherical shape, and typical amylose content (24.9 ± 0.4%). No significant changes were observed in amylose-amylopectin content and morphology of granules after modification. The functional properties of RSS were significantly improved in HMT10%, reducing the peak at 80°C and increasing the SI (18.7 ± 0.8%), WAC (18.1 ± 0.2 g water/g starch), and SP (22.2 ± 0.2 g water/g starch) at 90°C, compared to native RSS, and greater than modified wheat and corn starches. Conclusions: RSS modified by HMT at 10% moisture gradually enhances its functional properties as temperature increases, and above that of corn and wheat starches, resulting in an attractive non-conventional starch with potential industry applications.

A new species of cyst nematode of the genus Heterodera belonging to the Humuli group is described from rhizosphere soil and roots of the breadnut tree, Brosimum alicastrum (family Moraceae) in a tropical forest in La Mancha of Veracruz State, Mexico. The breadnut cyst nematode, Heterodera tropica sp. n. is characterised by small ambifenestral cysts without bullae and a weak underbridge. Second-stage juveniles have well-developed stylet 20-24 μm long, conical tail, 32-56 μm long with hyaline region, 17-28 μm. Phylogenetic relationships of H. tropica sp. n. with other species of the Humuli group were reconstructed using the D2-D3 expansion segments of 28S rRNA, ITS rRNA and COI gene sequences. The new species is morphologically and molecularly similar to the fig cyst nematode, H. fici and these two cyst nematodes are shown to be sister species in phylogenetic trees reconstructed using the ITS rRNA and COI gene sequences. With the description of the breadnut cyst nematode, together with H. humuli and H. fici, the number of species of Humuli group reported in North America increased to three.

This study evaluatedthe nutritional and antinutritional (ANFs)composition and protein profiles of different components of Ramon(Brosimum alicastrum) seed, includingthe seed coat, fruit, and both roasted and green (unprocessed) seeds.Proximate composition, mineral content, ANFs quantification, aminoacid profile, in vitro protein digestibility, SDS-PAGE,proteomics, and gluten ELISA were performed. Protein contents rangedfrom 9.85 to 10.69 g/100 g. ANFssaponins (961.10–1337.58mg DE/100 g), tannins (12.67–208.66 mg CE/100 g), phytic acid(1327.88–3592.51 mg/100 g), and oxalates (365.08–1431.48mg CaC2O4/100 g)varied by processing. In vitro digestibility-corrected amino acid scores (25.05–47.85%)confirmed low to moderate digestibility. SDS-PAGE showed low-molecular-weightproteins (<25 kDa) predominantly, and mass spectrometry corroboratedthe presence of β-amylase and glucan-phosphorylase proteins.Gluten ELISA analysis confirmed Ramon flour is gluten-free. Theseresults highlight Ramon seeds as a sustainable, nutrient-dense, gluten-freeprotein source suitable for functional food applications, addressingfuture protein security needs.

Brosimum alicastrum bark is used in Mexican traditional medicine to treat chronic illnesses, including diabetes. For this reason, the purpose of this work was to evaluate the anti-hyperglycaemic effect of the aqueous extract from B. alicastrum bark. Therefore, the aqueous extract at 40 mg/kg, administered orally and chronically, exhibited an anti-hyperglycaemic effect in a streptozotocin/nicotinamide model in Wistar rats. Because of our chemical study of this species demonstrated the presence of the coumarins xanthyletin (1), luvangetin (2), 8-hydroxyxanthyletin (3), and methoxyrutaretin (4), we also determined the presence of this bioactive compounds in the aqueous infusion and their quantification therein by developing a new, simple, fast, selective, sensitive, and precise HPLC-DAD method according to ICH validation guideline. Finally, the presence of coumarins can be associated with the anti-hyperglycaemic effect shown by the extract.

Approach to biohydrogen production from residual Brosimum alicastrum biomass of consolidated bioprocess

El objetivo de este estudio fue identificar las regiones en México con mayor abundancia de Brosimum alicastrum, así como los patrones edafoclimáticos y fisiográficos que condicionan su distribución natural actual y futura. Para ello, se emplearon modelos de abundancia, nicho ecológico y cambio climático mediante herramientas de sistemas de información geográfica. Esto permitió determinar los factores que condicionan la cobertura natural de la especie en las regiones del país, y establecer una base para su manejo silvícola. Se diferenciaron cinco regiones con la mayor abundancia de la especie: Península de Yucatán, Istmo, Lacandona, Occidente y Huasteca. El principal factor que condiciona la distribución actual de Brosimum alicastrum es la altitud, pues es más abundante en regiones por debajo de los 400 m. A medida que la altitud se incrementa, sus poblaciones disminuyen. Los escenarios de cambio climático fueron desalentadores, al indicar una posible desaparición total de la cobertura de la especie en la Península de Yucatán, donde actualmente es más abundante. Las variaciones extremas entre las temperaturas diurnas y nocturnas, junto con la inestabilidad de las lluvias serán los principales factores que condicionen a futuro la distribución natural de la especie en México. No obstante, se identificaron nuevas áreas potencialmente adecuadas para desarrollo en altitudes superiores a los 400 m. Estos resultados pueden considerarse como base para mejorar el manejo silvícola de la especie por región, contemplar las condiciones que a futuro incidirán en su desarrollo natural.

This study addresses the need for effective protein extraction and characterization to unlock the potential of underutilized plant resources like Brosimum alicastrum Swartz nuts, aiming to enhance their value as functional ingredients in food applications. Extraction methods, including pH modulation, ultrasound-assisted extraction, and enzymatic hydrolysis, are employed to enhance technofunctional and bioactive properties. The protein extracts are evaluated for solubility, emulsifying capacity, foaming properties, and water/oil-holding capacities to assess their technofunctional potential. Additionally, the bioactive properties, such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, are analyzed to explore potential health benefits. The results demonstrate that integrated extraction techniques significantly improve the yield and quality of Brosimum alicastrum Swartz nut proteins. Enzymatic hydrolysis, in particular, produces hydrolysates with superior bioactive properties. These findings highlight the potential of Brosimum alicastrum Swartz proteins as valuable ingredients for the food and pharmaceutical industries, promoting the utilization of underexploited plant resources for sustainable and health-promoting applications.

Novel foods especially formulated and targeted for the elderly population should provide sufficient nutrients and bioactive ingredients to counteract the natural age-related deterioration of various organs and tissues. Dietary protein and phenolic compounds achieve this goal; however, older adults have alterations in their gastrointestinal system that may impact their bioavailability and few studies have been aimed at this population. Since phenolic compounds are the subject of multiple biotransformations by host and microbiome enzymes during the digestion process, identification of their bioavailable forms in human plasma or tissues represents a considerable analytical challenge. In this study, UHPLC-ESI-QTOF/MS-MS, chemometrics, and multivariate statistical methods were used to identify the amino acids and phenolic compounds that were increased in the plasma of elderly adults after a 30-day intervention in which they had consumed an especially formulated muffin and beverage containing Brosimum alicastrum Sw. seed flour. A large interindividual variation was observed regarding the amino acids and phenolic metabolites identified in the plasma samples, before and after the intervention. Three phenolic metabolites were significantly increased in the population after the intervention: protocatechuic acid, 5-(methoxy-4'-hydroxyphenyl) valerolactone, and phloretic acid. These metabolites, as well as others that were not significantly increased (although they did increase in several individuals), are probably the product of the microbiota metabolism of the major phenolic compounds present in the B. alicastrum Sw. seed flour and other food ingredients. A significant decrease in 4-ethyl-phenol, a biomarker of stress, was observed in the samples. Results showed that the incorporation of foods rich in phenolic compounds into the regular diet of older adults contributes to the increase in bioactive compounds in plasma, that could substantially benefit their mental, cardiovascular, and digestive health.

The objective of the present work was to analyse the concentrations of bioactive compounds, and the antioxidant capacity of three foods prepared from the seeds and leaves of Ramon tree (Brosimum alicastrum). We studied the effect of infusion time and ultrasonic extraction on leaves, roasted seeds (coffee substitute), and Ramon flour to optimise the recovery of bioactive components. Infusion time positively affected the concentrations of total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), total tannins (TCT), and glycosylated flavonoids (TFG) in the leaves and seeds. The amount of solubilised phenolic compounds increased with increasing infusion time until 2,552 mg of TPC, 54.1 mg of TFC, 75.3 mg of TFG, and 2.40 mg of TCT were obtained per 100 g of leaves. We reported 32.9% greater infusion of toasted seeds in TPC, 87.3% in anthocyanins, 84.6% in TCT, and 91.5% in vitamin C than in leaves. Furthermore, the antioxidant capacity of the seed infusions was 56% greater than that of the leaf infusions. The ultrasonication time was positively correlated with the tannin concentration, which was 43.8% greater in the leaves (5.24 mg/100 g) than in the flour. The neutralising capacity of free radicals determined by 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) was 23.6% greater than that of flour (27.93 µmol/g) and leaves (6.48 µmol/g), and was not related to the extraction time. Taken together, these findings showed that Ramon seeds and leaves could be highly functional foods due to their nutritional quality and high content of antioxidant compounds.

&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background.&lt;/strong&gt; The current maize production in México is insufficient to supply both human and animal consumption. As maize is the main ingredient used in the formulation of poultry diets, each year, the importation of this cereal rises, thereby, the replacement of this conventional input can be made with alternative resources, such as the Ramón (&lt;em&gt;Brosimum alicastrum&lt;/em&gt; Swartz) seed. &lt;strong&gt;Objective.&lt;/strong&gt; To determine the chemical composition of Ramon seed meal (RSM), together with the estimation of the apparent metabolizable energy (AME), true metabolizable energy (TME), their digestible coefficients, as well as the apparent ileal digestible energy (AIDE) and apparent ileal digestibility coefficient (AIDC) of gross energy (GE). &lt;strong&gt;Methodology. &lt;/strong&gt;Two experiments were performed using Cobb broilers; in the first experiment AME, TME and the digestible coefficients were calculated using 24 broilers (twelve 3-week-old and twelve 6-week-old) eight of them were randomly selected for determination of endogenous losses (EL). The sixteen remaining were precision-fed a single dose of RSM and total excreta collection was used. In the second experiment, three diets: 1) 100% maize; 2) 40% RSM-60% maize and; 3) 60% RSM-40% maize) were made to determine the AIDE and AIDC of each ingredient using the difference method. Diets were randomly assigned to a total of 51 7-week-old broilers, distributed in six, six and five replicates respectively (three broilers per replicate). &lt;strong&gt;Results. &lt;/strong&gt;No differences were found for the&lt;strong&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;AME (1863 and 1909 kcal/kg for 3 and 6 weeks, respectively) and TME (2234 and 2271 kcal/kg, for 3 and 6 weeks, respectively) values of the RSM. The AIDE and AIDC of RSM at 40 and 60% inclusion (2408 and 2538 kcal/kg, and 0.64 and 0.67, respectively) were found to be lower than that of maize (3179 kcal/kg and 0.81). &lt;strong&gt;Implications. &lt;/strong&gt;These results provide information regarding the incorporation of ramon as an energy resource in tropical poultry diets. &lt;strong&gt;Conclusion.&lt;/strong&gt; The estimated value of RSM in broilers was 1886 Kcal/kg for AME, 2252.5 Kcal/kg for TME and 0.476 and 0.569 for their digestibility coefficients of GE, respectively. For the AIDE, the estimated value was 2408.8 and 2538.7 Kcal/kg at 40 and 60% inclusion of RSM, with 0.640 and 0.674 AIDC, respectively.&lt;/p&gt;

An experiment was carried out to assess the effect of the incorporation of sun-dried foliage of Brosimum alicastrum into rations based on hay of Megathyrsus maximus on intake, rumen fermentation, kinetics of passage, microbial nitrogen supply to the small intestine, apparent digestibility in Pelibuey hair sheep. Four rations were randomly allotted to four rumen-cannulated lambs (BW = 37.4 ± 4.9 kg) using a 4 × 4 Latin square design to assess the effect of increasing levels (0, 15, 30 and 45% DM basis) of foliage of Brosimum alicastrum on a basal ration of M. maximus. Organic matter intake and water consumption increased linearly (p < 0.01) with increasing levels of B. alicastrum in the ration. The rate and potential extent of rumen fermentation of OM and CP of B. alicastrum were 10.6%/h and 86.6% and 11.4%/h and 95.2%, respectively, but no effect (p > 0.05) was found on the potential rumen degradation of DM (40.2%) or on the rate of degradation of DM (0.033%/h) of M. maximus, although a positive effect was found in the rumen degradation rate of NDF (p < 0.05). VFA and ammonia concentration in the rumen and the rate of passage of solids and liquids through the rumen (k1) increased linearly (p < 0.01) with increasing levels of B. alicastrum. Rumen pH was not affected by the incorporation of B. alicastrum (p > 0.05). Microbial nitrogen supply to the small intestine (p < 0.001), apparent digestibility of dry matter (p < 0.01) and NDF (p < 0.05) of the rations were also significantly increased as a result of the incorporation of B. alicastrum foliage. Results from this experiment suggest that the foliage of Brosimum alicastrum can be readily incorporated at around 30% of the ration of dry matter in hair sheep with beneficial effects on feed intake, rate of passage and microbial N supply to the lower tract.

Aim of study: The native species of warm humid climates Ceiba pentandra, Tabebuia rosea, Gliricidia sepium, Enterolobium cyclocarpum and Brosimum alicastrum are often included in Mexican reforestation programs. We evaluated the growth response in sandy soils of these species that could serve as pioneers in the restoration of coastal areas. Area of study: Alluvial plain in Frontera, Tabasco, Mexico. Material and methods: A total of 1080 plants were planted in 2014 and evaluated for 23 months in 30 plots under a randomized block design with six replications. The sample plots each occupied 36 m2 (each with 16 plants). Survival percentage, stem height (SH), basal diameter (BD) and basal area (BA) were quantified. Survival and growth variables were analyzed using logistic regression and ANOVA for repeated measures, respectively. Main results: At the end of the experiment (2016), high survival was demonstrated in G. sepium (88 %) and in C. pentandra (86 %), while B. alicastrum presented total mortality at six months. The highest values of SH and BD were presented in C. pentandra (2.9 m and 7.8 cm, respectively) and in G. sepium (2.6 m and 4.2 cm, respectively). Gliricidia sepium differed significantly from C. pentandra in terms of BA (5.9 vs. 23 m2 ha-1, respectively). Research highlights: The native species C. pentandra and G. sepium presented high survival and growth in the sandy soils; G. sepium showed strong adaptation to the environment and C. pentandra offered suitable coverage, characteristics that are necessary for the success of reforestation and restoration programs.

The Peruvian Amazon has experienced large losses of forest cover due to changes in land use, contributing to increases in CO2 in the atmosphere. This study estimated the organic carbon content of forest soil in two forests “Ojos de Agua” and “El Quinillal” in the Central Huallaga of Peru, establishing three types of cover: (i) primary, (ii) intervened, and (iii) deforested. For this purpose, 24 plots of 100 m2 were established and samples were extracted at a depth of 0–20 cm. The effect of the type of forest cover on soil carbon (Organic Carbon‐SOC, Inorganic Carbon‐SIC, Saturated Carbon‐SC, Critical Carbon‐CC, Saturated Carbon Deficit‐SCD, and Organic Carbon‐OC) was analyzed by means of an Analysis of Variance, correlation. Likewise, the relationship between carbon (C) and soil properties was evaluated by principal component analysis and correlation network. The results indicated that the highest SOC averages were found in the primary forests of Ojos de Agua and El Quinillal with 3.54% and 2.51%. The lowest values were found in the deforested forests with 1.34% and 1.46%. The calculation of the saturated C levels of the soil showed an average of 28.63% ± 2.14% and the saturated carbon deficit of 26.63% ± 2.45%, whereas the critical threshold of C showed an average of 2.21% ± 0.18%. The highest SOC content found in the Ojos de Agua primary forest is due to the presence of dominant forest species such as Manilkara bidentata and Brosimum alicastrum. Likewise, the C deficit in the soils of the study area is very alarming because it is very close to saturation levels, especially in deforested forests.

The differences in the ranges, morphological structure, and molecular biological characteristics of representatives of all tribes of the Moraceae family – modern and accepted in the past - are considered. Special attention is paid to economically important natural rubber-bearing plants from this family – Castilla elastica, Castilla ulei and Ficus elastica from the tribes Castilleae and Ficeae, respectively. Based on the homology of the nucleotide sequences of the internal transcribed spacers (ITS 1 and ITS 2) of rDNA, a study of the phylogenetic relationship of about three dozen genera and 53 species of Moraceae was conducted. The analysis revealed 7 branches, generally corresponding to the five already recognized tribes of Moreae, Artocarpeae, Dorstenieae, Castilleae, Ficeae, and two more tribes described recently – Maclureae and Parartocarpeae. The heterogeneity of the genera Streblus, Trophis and Broussonetia has been confirmed. The species Treculia africana and Treculia obovoidea turned out to be in a single branch not with the Artocarpeae tribe, but with representatives of Dorstenieae, and most closely with Brosimum alicastrum. The tribes Ficeae and Castilleae with plants not only containing latex, but also rubber producers, turned out to be sister to each other and phylogenetically the nearest.

The aim of this work was to compare the effect of solvents in the UAE on the content of total phenolic compounds (TPC) and in vitro antioxidant capacity DPPH and reducing power (RP) of the whole fruit B. alicastrum. The phenolic compounds of the freeze-dried fruit were extracted in an ultrasonic bath for 30 min at 30 °C, 100 % amplitude and 40 kHz frequency. The solvents used were: ethanol (Et-OH), methanol (Met-OH), 50 % ethanol (50 % Et-OH) and 50 % methanol (50 % Met-OH). The UAE of phenolic compounds of the fruit was improved by adding distilled water to the organic solvent. The highest TPC content and antioxidant capacity were obtained with 50 % Met-OH. There was a high positive correlation between TPC and antioxidant capacity (DPPH and PR). It is suggested to use 50 % Met-OH as solvent for UAE of phenolic compounds of fruit B. alicastrum.

El objetivo del presente estudio fue evaluar el efecto nematicida de cuatro extractos hidroalcohólicos (EHA) de Brosimum alicastrum (EHA-Ba), Guazuma ulmifolia (EHA-Gu), Erythrina americana (EHA-Ea) y Leucaena leucocephala (EHA-Ll) contra Haemonchus contortus. Se usaron las pruebas de inhibición de la eclosión de huevos (IEH) y mortalidad larval (larvas infectantes). Los tratamientos fueron los EHA´s a concentraciones de 6.25-50 mg/ml para IEH y de 25-100 mg/mlpara mortalidad larval, ivermectina (5 mg/ml, control positivo) y agua destilada (control negativo). Los datos se analizaron mediante un ANOVA y los tratamientos con efecto dependiente a la concentración se sometieron a un análisis de regresión para determinar las concentraciones letales (CL50 y CL90). Además, se realizó un análisis fitoquímico a los extractos para identificar la presencia de los principales metabolitos secundarios. La mejor actividad ovicida y larvicida fue observada en EHA-Gu con un 96.78 % de IEH a 6.25 mg/ml y 57.2 % de mortalidad larval a 75 mg/ml. Seguido de EHA-Ba mostrando 90 % IEH a 6.25 mg/mly un 58.0 % de mortalidad larval a 75 mg/ml. Las CL50 y CL90 del EHA-Gu sobre la IEH fueron 2.7 y 4.4 mg/ml, respectivamente. Mientras que las CL´s de este mismo extracto sobre larvas fue de CL50=64 y CL90=125 mg/ml. El análisis fitoquímico indica que todos los extractos contienen taninos, cumarinas, flavonoides y terpenos. Las especies forrajeras G. ulmifolia y E. americana podrían ser plantas candidatas para el control de H. contortus.

The Ramon tree, also known as Brosimum alicastrum, is a large tree belonging to the Moraceae family that is native to Mesoamerica and the Caribbean. The tree is widely distributed in Mexico, from the tropical forests of the south to the Pacific and Gulf coasts and is capable of thriving in low humidity conditions. The Mayans cultivated the Ramon tree to use its seed as food in their diet, and these trees can still be found near Mayan archaeological sites. Currently, the Ramon tree is considered an underexploited plant with high economic potential. The seeds of the Ramon tree are used to make drinks and foods such as tortillas or bread. The nutritional composition of Ramon seeds is still being investigated, but they are known to contain protein, fat, crude fiber, and minerals such as copper, potassium, iron, and zinc. Ramon seed flour has been found to exhibit a higher content of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity compared to corn flour, highlighting its potential as a substitute or complement in the formulation of food products. The presence of compounds such as p-hydroxybenzoic acid, gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, and vanillic acid contributes to its beneficial properties, and its ability to function as a functional ingredient opens up new possibilities in the food and nutritional supplement industry.

Plant species, regional conditions and management practices haveeffects on plant nutrient uptake; however, its study is complex as their effects occur all at the same time. This study compares the foliar nutrient contents of Brosimum alicastrum (evergreen), Cordia dodecandra (deciduous), and Spondias purpurea (deciduous) tree individuals growing in homegardens and forest at two climate regions. 20 individuals per species and their associated soils were sampled. Soil pH, electrical conductivity, sand, silt, and clay percentages, as well as edaphic and foliar C, N, P, K, Na, and Ca contents were analyzed. Nutrient levels in soils associated with each species were significantly different (λ Wilks = 0.61, F12,372 = 8.70; p &lt; 0.0001). Forest soils had higher contents of C and N; homegarden soils had higher pH, and more silt and phosphorus. The foliar nutrient contents of the three species were significantly different (λ Wilks = 0.11, F12,458 = 77.71; P &lt; 0.0001). B. alicastrum had greater contents of Na and K; C. dodecandra had more Ca, and S. purpurea had higher levels of N and P. Foliar P content was three times higher in homegarden trees than in forest individuals. Our results suggest that management primarily determines foliar P content; C and N levels depend on species and region; and both, the species and management determine K, Na, and Ca contents.

Native and modified starches from underutilized seeds: Characteristics, functional properties and potential applications