Breaking Of Rules Research Articles

From White Wash to Black Ice: Black Athletes in Unexpected Places

[Mary] Douglas argues that what really disturbs cultural order is when things turn up in the wrong category. . . . Stable cultures require things to stay in their appointed place. Symbolic boundaries keep the categories “pure,” giving cultures their unique meaning and identity. What unsettles culture is “matter out of place”—the breaking of unwritten rules and codes. Dirt in the garden is fine, but dirt in one’s bedroom is “matter out of place”—a sign of pollution, of symbolic boundaries being transgressed, of taboos broken. What we do with “matter out of place” is to sweep it up, throw it out, restore the place to order, bring back the normal state of affairs.

Caracterización de los usuarios hospitalizados por lesiones causadas por colisión en tránsito, en la Fundación Oftalmológica de Santander- Foscal, año 2012

ResumenIntroducción: Las lesiones por accidentes de tránsito se han convertido en un problema de salud pública a nivel local, nacional y mundial, el cual está relacionado con múltiples factores tales como el desarrollo socioeconómico, el crecimiento vehicular, la infraestructura, el incumplimiento de las normas de tránsito, el consumo de sustancias alcohólicas y psico-activas. Objetivo: Caracterizar los eventos de trauma por accidentes de tránsito en relación al individuo y al evento. Metodología: Estudio observacional, retrospectivo tipo descriptivo. Resultados: De los lesionados el 75.4% eran hombres y 24.6% mujeres. El 43.2% presentaban edades entre los 18 a 29 años. El 41% eran solteros y 32% casados. En el 78% de los casos, el vehículo involucrado fue moto. El 53% declararon ser conductores, 19% pasajeros y 17% peatones. El 50.4% de los eventos registrados ocurrieron en días de fin de semana. El 58% de los accidentes ocurrieron en horas del día. La autopista que conecta los municipios de Bucaramanga, Floridablanca y Piedecuesta, es el sitio de mayor ocurrencia de los accidentes de tránsito. El 97.6% de los lesionados del estudio, presentó estado VIVO al egreso hospitalario. Conclusiones: Las motos tienen un mayor riesgo de presentar eventos por colisión en tránsito, esto es comparable a otros estudios en los países de ingresos medios y bajos, dejando en evidencia la carencia de programas de prevención generen una cultura social, articulados con secretarias de educación, desarrollo social, salud y medio ambiente.[Hernández-Gamboa AE, Ardila YA. Caracterización de los usuarios hospitalizados por lesiones causadas por colisión en tránsito, en la Fundación Oftalmológica de Santander - Foscal, año 2012. MedUNAB 2015; 17(3): 142-148].

The Retention, Revival, and Subjugation of Indigenous Fire Knowledge through Agency Fire Fighting in Eastern Australia and California

This article explores the potential impact of training and employment with wildfire management agencies on the retention of Indigenous fire knowledge. It focuses on the comparative knowledge and experiences of Indigenous Elders, cultural practitioners, and land stewards in connection with “modern” political constructs of fire in New South Wales and Queensland, Australia, and California in the United States of America. This article emphasises the close link between cross-cultural acceptance, integration of Indigenous and agency fire cultures, and the ways in which knowledge types are shared or withheld. While agency fire fighting provides an opportunity for Indigenous people to connect and care for country, it simultaneously allows for the breaking of traditional rules surrounding what knowledge is shared with whom in the context of Indigenous cultural burning. By highlighting how privilege intersects with ethnicity, class, gender and age, this article demonstrates how greater cross-cultural acceptance could aid ongoing debates on how to coexist with wildfire today.

A naturalistic decision-making perspective on anaesthetists’ rule-related behaviour

As a widely recognised feature of work activity, procedural violations have been of considerable interest to human factors specialists, and several models have been proposed to aid in understanding their occurrence. A common feature of these models is that they depict violations as being, to a greater or lesser extent, intentional; therefore, rule-related behaviour could be reconceptualised as an exercise in decision-making. In this paper, we examine anaesthetists’ use of rules from the perspective of naturalistic decision-making. Doing so suggests that their rule-related behaviour is a product of the extent to which following a rule is consistent with other principles that guide their decision-making. Observational and interview data from 23 consultant anaesthetists indicated the presence of three such principles: “doing the right thing”; “doing what works in the circumstances”; and “using one’s skills and expertise”. Hence, rule-related behaviour in this setting is better understood as a form of situated action than as the following or breaking of rules per se. We discuss the implications of this view for understanding why violations occur, and how to address them.

Perceptions of Rule-Breaking Related to Marine Ecosystem Health

Finding effective solutions to manage marine resources is high on political and conservation agendas worldwide. This is made more urgent by the rate of increase in the human population and concomitant resource pressures in coastal areas. This paper links empirical socio-economic data about perceptions of marine resource health to the breaking of marine management rules, using fisheries as a case study. The relationship between perceived rule-breaking (non-compliance with regulations controlling fishing) and perceived health of inshore marine environments was investigated through face-to-face interviews with 299 heads of households in three Tanzanian coastal communities in November and December 2011. Awareness of rules controlling fishing activity was high among all respondents. Fishers were able to describe more specific rules controlling fishing practices than non-fishers (t = 3.5, df = 297, p<0.01). Perceived breaking of fishing regulations was reported by nearly half of all respondents, saying “some” (32% of responses) or “most” (15% of responses) people break fishing rules. Ordinal regression modelling revealed a significant linkage (z = −3.44, p<0.001) in the relationship between respondents' perceptions of deteriorating marine health and their perception of increased rule-breaking. In this paper, inferences from an empirical study are used to identify and argue the potential for using perceptions of ecosystem health and level of rule-breaking as a means to guide management measures. When considering different management options (e.g. Marine Protected Areas), policy makers are advised to take account of and utilise likely egoistic or altruistic decision-making factors used by fishers to determine their marine activities.

Raman spectroscopic properties and Raman identification of CaS‐MgS‐MnS‐FeS‐Cr2FeS4 sulfides in meteorites and reduced sulfur‐rich systems

AbstractRaman spectra were acquired on a series of natural and synthetic sulfide minerals, commonly found in enstatite meteorites: oldhamite (CaS), niningerite or keilite ((Mg,Fe)S), alabandite (MnS), troilite (FeS), and daubreelite (Cr2FeS4). Natural samples come from three enstatite chondrites, three aubrites, and one anomalous ungrouped enstatite meteorite. Synthetic samples range from pure endmembers (CaS, FeS, MgS) to complex solid solutions (Fe, Mg, Ca)S. The main Raman peaks are localized at 225, 285, 360, and 470 cm−1 for the Mg‐rich sulfides; at 185, 205, and 285 cm−1 for the Ca‐rich sulfides; at 250, 370, and 580 cm−1 for the Mn‐rich sulfides; at 255, 290, and 365 cm−1 for the Cr‐rich sulfides; and at 290 and 335 cm−1 for troilite with, occasionally, an extra peak at 240 cm−1. A peak at 160 cm−1 is present in all Raman spectra and cannot be used to discriminate between the different sulfide compositions. According to group theory, none of the cubic monosulfides oldhamite, niningerite, or alabandite should present first‐order Raman spectra because of their ideal rocksalt structure. The occurrence of broad Raman peaks is tentatively explained by local breaking of symmetry rules. Measurements compare well with the infrared frequencies calculated from first‐principles calculations. Raman spectra arise from activation of certain vibrational modes due to clustering in the solid solutions or to coupling with electronic transitions in semiconductor sulfides.

Jan Ch Karlsson: Organizational Misbehaviour in the Workplace. Narratives of Dignity and Resistance. Palgrave Macmillan, 2012

Jan Ch Karlsson: Organizational Misbehaviour in the Workplace. Narratives of Dignity and Resistance. Palgrave Macmillan, 2012If you have any doubts about the importance of dignity and autonomy to employees at all levels of an organization, then this book surely is a must read for you. Should you lack good research-based examples of what happens when management tries to impose a suitable culture on the employees, forces employees to work in presumably more efficient ways, or implements control measures that are perceived as intrusive and unjust, then this book provides you with numerous references. In fact, this is a book very much suited for work life researchers, for general management, and within organization and management studies.The book is divided into three separate parts. First, the theme of organizational misbehavior is shortly introduced in relation to theories that address problems of organizing work processes or dignity and autonomy more indirectly, for example, socio-technical theory, the control-demand model, and Lysgaards study of the workers' collective. The second part of the book consists of a total of 66 short narratives on organizational misbehavior drawn from various research literature from the 1950s onward; approximately half of them stem from the years between 2000 and 2011. The third part of the book consists of two chapters. The first introduces what the author describes as the focal point of organizational misbehavior, the rationales behind the breaking of management rules, through the introduction of an empirical example/research study from the Norwegian Health Care Sector. The second chapter discusses numerous approaches relevant to organizational misbehavior and presents a model of possible subsets of organizational misbehavior in relation to the command hierarchy at the workplace.The main bulk of this book, the narratives, is perhaps also the most interesting one. There is no doubt that the author has done a great job selecting interesting, illuminating, and relevant examples of organizational misbehavior in various contexts. There is, however, a slight problem with regard to the lack of systematic analysis of the presented narratives. After reading 128 pages of narratives, you get surprised that Karlsson chooses to present another empirical study over a whole new chapter. It is as if he does not after all regard the 66 narratives as anything else than, well, just narratives. Another question also presents itself-why has not the narratives been placed directly within, or more clearly in relation to, the model in the concluding chapter? The book would also benefit from presenting an overview of the narratives-country of origin, year, type of business, size of business, and so on-it just is not enough to write one paragraph to sum up all of these characteristics.The narratives may be perceived as a summary of every possible way management can go wrong in their quest for more control and how the (more clever) employees manage to be productive anyway. They make you smile, they may shock you, but even more so they come across as essential insights for anyone interested in the organizing and development of organizations. Some of the narratives illustrate the classical struggle of middle management when they are made responsible for implementing top-down initiated restructuring processes, often put forward as cultural change projects, but with the hidden agenda of making the workers more productive. In some of these cases, middle management then overrules top management by joining forces with the employees. Management is not homogenous and managers do not always threaten the subordinates' dignity. On the contrary, managers may themselves be without the necessary dignity and influence in their work. In other words, organizational misbehavior-the breaking of management rules- can be found at every level of an organization and is not an exclusive worker strategy. …

Polska i Białoruś – trudne sąsiedztwo. Polityka „krytycznego dialogu” wobec autorytarnej Białorusi

For over ten years Polish-Belarusian political relations have been characterized by a lack of opportunities for real collaboration, caused by the non-democratic nature of the Belarusian political system. The international isolation of its authoritarian regime also influences bilateral relations. In the period from 1996–2008 Poland adopted a principle of critical dialogue in its policy towards Belarus. This implied official criticism of the infringement of human rights and breaking of democratic rules while refraining from a total abandonment of dialogue with the Belarusian authorities, although the level and intensity of this dialogue was significantly diminished. It was assumed that the complete isolation of the Belarusian authorities was not in Polish interests and preferential treatment would help to ensure the fundamental rights of the Polish minority in Belarus. This policy turned out to be ineffective, though, in relation to a state that does not acknowledge the basic principles and laws of international relations. To a large extent, the specific character of the Belarusian political system has been, and will remain, the greatest obstacle in the further development of Polish-Belarusian relations, and will significantly restrict the possibility of building good relations in the future.

Securitisation, terror, and control: towards a theory of the breaking point

AbstractSecuritisations permit the breaking of rules: but which rules? This article argues that any given security situation could be handled by a variety of different ‘rule breaking’ procedures, and that securitisations themselves, whilst permitting rule breaking in general, do not necessarily specify in advance which rules in particular have to be broken. This begs the question: how do specific threats result in specific rule breaking measures? This article explores this question through reference to ‘control orders’, an unusual legal procedure developed in the UK during the course of the war on terrorism. Once applied to an individual, a control order gives the government a meticulous control over every aspect of their life, up to and including deciding on which educational qualifications they can take. Despite this control, individuals under the regime remain technically ‘free’: and have frequently used this freedom to abscond from the police who are supposed to be watching them. How did a security policy which controls a suspect's educational future, but not their physical movements, develop? This article aims to answer this question, and in so doing present a reevaluation of the mechanisms through which the effects of securitisation manifest themselves.

Modification of Optical Properties of Porous AIIIBV Layers Produced by Anodic Etching

Morphology investigations (atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM)), study of Raman scattering (RS) and photoluminescence (PL) have been performed to characterize a series of AIIIBV materials (GaAs, GaP, InP) with an electrochemically prepared porous surface layer. It has been shown that the surface morphology of porous AIIIBV compounds strongly depends on various parameters of the anodizationprocess such as the etching time, current density, composition of etching solution, and illumination during the etching procedure. The enhancement of a Raman signal from porous surfaces, which has been observed for almost all samples, is caused mainly by the breaking of selection rules for corresponding phonon modes and a decrease of the reflection at the porous surface. The peculiarities of the PL spectra of porous AIIIBV compounds are studied in a wide temperature range. The small quantum confinement effect has been observed for GaAs and InP porous surfaces.

Adolescent noncompliance and occupational attainment in transitional societies

This article examines the effects of adolescent noncompliance (e.g., breaking of rules, flouting of norms) on occupational attainment in unstable and unpredictable societies. The authors suggest that the effect of adolescent noncompliance on occupational attainment depends on the unpredictability of the society and propose that adolescent noncompliance has positive effects on the occupational status of young adults in unpredictable societies. Using longitudinal data from the Paths of a Generation study, the authors estimate the impact of adolescent noncompliance on occupational status in former Soviet regions at two time points: (1) before the transition (stable society) and (2) in 1997–9, after major societal changes (unstable and unpredictable society). They find that adolescent noncompliance does not affect occupational attainment before the transition; however, it does increase the chance of being a manager after the transition. In addition, it is found that after the transition, adolescent noncompliance has positive effects on occupational attainment in the private sector but not in the state sector, providing further evidence of the positive effect of noncompliance in unpredictable societies.

Rock Stars in Academic Medicine

To investigate the prevalence and characteristics of faculty rock stars, a subset of academic health center faculty who greatly enhance the reputation and/or success of their home institution, oftentimes at the expense of a disproportionate share of institutional resources. In 2008, the authors surveyed the deans of 126 U.S. medical schools accredited by the Liaison Committee for Medical Education, using a 13-item instrument consisting of Likert scales, pick lists, and open-ended questions. Sixty-four (51%) surveyed deans responded. Respondents were more representative of public than private institutions (P < .001) but were proportionately representative of institutions of varying faculty size, U.S. New & World Report research rankings, and geographic location. The prevalence of rock stars was 1.42% (range 0.07%-6.42%) of full-time faculty. Over 74% (46/62) of deans felt that these talented faculty contributed to institutional prominence. Most deans were usually willing to offer greater resources to recruit or retain these faculty stars, and 39/62 (63%) believed that these individuals were a good investment. Although 53/64 (82.8%) of deans believed that other faculty are often or almost always aware that these individuals receive preferential treatment, only 37/64 (57.8%) believed that other faculty agree with that treatment. Fifty percent or more of deans (depending on the characteristic) selected self-promotion, a strong work ethic, opportunism, charisma, and political savvy as characteristics that were more common in rock stars. Deans appreciated both the value and the leadership challenges associated with the academic medical center rock star.

The civilizing of hurling in Ireland

This essay examines the sport of hurling in Ireland through the theoretical framework of sport and leisure developed by Elias and Dunning. Through an analysis of newspaper reports of games, of rulebooks and codes of play, as well as historical data on increasing social differentiation and integration, we argue that hurling has undergone sportization and civilizing processes. However, due to the unevenness of wider figurational shifts these processes have been non-linear and fragile. Gradually, we see increasing numbers of rules, as well as increasing severity of punishment for the breaking of specific rules relating to violent play. The level and extent of violent conduct also appears to change with both players and spectators becoming more self-controlled. The increasing emotional restraint of spectators and players can be explained by the changes in the overall structure of Irish society during this period, particularly from the 1960s onwards with increasing interdependencies between people.

Self-regulation abilities in children with severe traumatic brain injury: A preliminary investigation of naturalistic action

Research suggests that the occurrence of a traumatic brain injury (TBI) in childhood may disrupt self-regulation abilities, putting children at risk for difficulty on everyday tasks requiring self-regulation throughout their development. In the current exploratory study, a novel age-appropriate task assessed the ability to perform three familiar tasks using real objects while adhering to specific rules. Performance of children (ages 8-16) with severe TBI (n = 11) on the naturalistic task was compared to that of typically developing children (n = 21), including measures of the amount/types of errors and number of broken rules. The children with TBI exhibited significantly increased use of distractor objects in place of target objects as compared to the non-injured children. Additionally, children with TBI demonstrated trends of increased breaking of rules during the task and failure to include necessary steps. The preliminary results support the theory that children with severe TBI possess inefficient supervisory processes of self-regulation, corresponding to a decreased ability to carry out goal-based top-down processing. They may instead exhibit a bias towards a bottom-up approach, depending primarily on environmental cues such as the objects present to guide their actions, thus impeding self-regulation abilities.

Ad/hd: Possible Diagnosis and Treatment

Abstract The purpose of this paper is to show that a more exact diagnosis and dietary intervention in AD/HD (Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder) is possible and probable. The clinical symptom based diagnosis we suggest may be supplemented with physiological tests. A genetic and environmental inter-action is clearly involved and explainable using phenylketonuria as a model. Method: Examining peer reviewed published papers on gut to blood, blood to brain interaction and effect of interventions in AD/HD and our own studies in the field. The various treatment options are discussed. Results: It can be shown that a gut to brain activity is possible and probable, and dietary intervention is useful and probably safer than drugs. Preliminary data on a small five year follow up of dietary intervention is shown. Key words: AD/HD, Peptides, Diet, Behaviour, Additives, Ritaline. Introduction Medical diagnosis of AD/HD is largely based on clinical signs or symptom clusters. It is therefore often stated that for instance autistic children can have an additional diagnosis of AD/HD. This is false and due to hyperactivity caused by difference in aetiology. The common denominator in AD/HD is hypo-arousal in the attention related parts of the CNS (Central Nervous System) and examples are quoted. Autistic children have opposite arousal profiles. Thus they show slow habituation while AD/HD kids show fast habituation. Attention problems are therefore physiologically different. The usual drug treatment and various dietary interventions are outlined. Finally we present our five year dietary intervention follow up of a small group of AD/HD patients. We conclude that dietary intervention is probably safer than drug treatment and should be tried more extensively. The references are presented in each subtitle in the following. Genetics AD/HD has a strong genetic disposition (1-4). However, to become manifest genetic defects of enzymes or other metabolically active proteins must be overloaded by metabolites proximal to the insufficient enzyme. An example of this is Folling's disorder (phenylketonuria) where the amino acid phenylalanine (F) is not broken down in the liver. It consequently increases to toxic levels, and also opens up secondary pathways (just like a dam in river when it overflows). It is treated by throttling the input (removing F from diet) to the extent that only sufficient amounts of F are ingested to synthesise important transmitters. If some rest activity of the critical enzyme is present co-factor increase can restore some activity (change the Km of the enzyme in vivo) (5) and also by mass -action. The consequence of all this is that genetic disposition means unavoidably chemical changes, and if the insufficient enzyme or protein can be found, reducing the input from precursors should alleviate some of the problems. Diagnosis AD/HD is, as many medical diagnoses, based mainly on symptoms, observed phenomena as listed and described in DSM IV or ICD 10. This means in short that clusters of symptoms are taken to represent a disease entity, but this is usually not so, and most diagnoses contain subgroups since symptoms do not tell anything about aetiology. The following are the main problems, described in DSM IV, seen in the majority affected children: Inattention, Hyperactivity and Impulsivity. One subgroup shows only inattention, another hyperactivity and impulsivity. The symptoms are reflected in inability to complete long lasting tasks, inability to integrate socially due to breaking of rules and mores, and due to an impulse driven behaviour pattern. Aggressive reactions to peer demands and adults are also common, and the kids are easily frustrated. Patho-physiologic diagnosis Central to the physiology is low skin conductance in the palms of the hands, with fast habituation and low responses to sensory inputs (this is the opposite of autistic children) (6, 7). …

Metamaterials and infra-red applications

We review the electromagnetic properties of metamaterials aimed at operating at infra-red wavelengths, keeping their potential applications in mind. Split ring resonators and periodically loaded transmission lines are considered with the main emphasis on the guide lines, design rules and characterization techniques. In this context, we address the various routes towards pushing up the operating frequency in the mid- and near- infrared region, with special attention on the breaking of scaling rules and on the technological challenges for metal and full dielectric approaches. To cite this article: D. Lippens, C. R. Physique 9 (2008).

Particulars, Practices, and Pragmatic Feminism: Breaking Rules and Rulings with William James

Particulars, Practices, and Pragmatic Feminism: Breaking Rules and Rulings with William James Erin C. Tarver In point of fact, there are no absolute evils, and there are no non-moral goods; and the highest ethical life—however few may be called to bear its burdens—consists at all times in the breaking of rules which have grown too narrow for the actual case. —William James, The Moral Philosopher and the Moral Life A recent conversation I had with a fellow philosopher turned on the question of particulars: Is it ever true that our theorizing is separable from the everyday lives and experiences of “real” people outside the academy? Are ideas things we can try on or toss aside without consequence, like so many frivolous hats? I was inclined, as a feminist, to answer both of these questions with an emphatic no. Committed to the idea that theories are always politically loaded—in both their origins and their consequences—I could not agree that my work as a philosopher should or could be divorced from the lived realities of people on the ground. Though it is obviously true that not everyone philosophizes (professionally or otherwise), it does not follow that those of us who do are thereby excused from thinking through the particular practical effects of this or that conception of truth, reality, or goodness on the lives of actual individuals in the world. A philosophy that refuses to concern itself with the messy particulars of existence is both deluded and dangerous. Although feminists may very frequently find themselves in just such confrontations with a philosophical establishment that cannot or will not recognize questions about the particulars of women’s lives as legitimate roads of inquiry, there are a few allies within the philosophical camp (and thankfully, of late their numbers are steadily growing). My purpose in this article is to show where and how William James’s pragmatism is theoretically useful for feminists, especially those feminists in dialogue with traditional philosophy. My investigation of James’s work will be topically organized by attention to three conceptual themes, [End Page 275] which, though interrelated in James’s thought, I will distinguish for the purposes of clarity: the concept of habit, the notion of the pluralism of experience (which I will treat in conjunction with selective attention and the constructed nature of truth), and the importance of consequences for the evaluation of philosophical commitments. Putting these theoretical resources to work in the service of feminism, I will argue that James’s thought is rich in resources for articulating the continued pervasiveness of sexism, especially as that sexism remains nontransparent to those implicated in it; for problematizing the supposedly “essential” nature of gender difference; for emphasizing the situated character of knowledge as constructed and transmitted by differently bodied individuals; and for interrogating the legitimacy of the traditional philosophical separation of theory and practice. Additionally, I will suggest that the relationship between Jamesian pragmatism and feminism need not be unidirectional but that feminist resources may be marshaled to serve as a corrective to James’s own lapses into sexism. However, I will argue that these corrective moments should not result in deep alterations to James’s theoretical framework but, rather, in the claim that James ought to be more consistently pragmatic. Finally, in the spirit of James’s declaration that “pragmatism is uncomfortable away from the facts” (1975, 38), I will, in the final section of this article, analyze a recent ruling of the U.S. Supreme Court that is of particular interest to feminist activists. The majority decision of Ledbetter v. Goodyear, which limits the rights of women to sue employers for sex-based pay discrimination, is centrally dependent on the assumption of the lucidity of two notions: the intent of the employer to discriminate and the isolability of a discrete event of discrimination. I will argue that a feminism informed by Jamesian pragmatism is well equipped to problematize both of these concepts and to expose their theoretical inadequacy as rooted in, among other things, insufficient attention to the relevance of particular social situations. My goal in this article, then, may not easily align with the conventions of typical philosophical or legal discourse...

Performatividad en la Bohemia: aspectos teóricos en las transgresiones de género

According to the performative theory developed by feminist Judith Butler in the nineties –inspired by John Austin and John Searle’ philosophy of language and Jacques Derrida’s subsequent comments– the little rebellions of everyday “being” and “doing” are more than identity games, since they have the chance to set new rules which can subvert the established order of domination. Following this idea, which has aroused so much debate in feminist theory, this article analyses the subversive power of so-called Bohemia during the period of time in which it was born –the end of the nineteenth century. The analysis focuses particularly on finding out the structure behind the breaking of patriarchal rules, which are viewed as the niche of social representations most resistant to change.

Microscopic formula for transport coefficients of causal hydrodynamics

The Green-Kubo-Nakano formula should be modified in relativistic hydrodynamics because of the problem of acausality and the breaking of sum rules. In this Rapid Communication, we propose a formula to calculate the transport coefficients of causal hydrodynamics based on the projection operator method. As concrete examples, we derive the expressions for the diffusion coefficient, the shear viscosity coefficient, and corresponding relaxation times.

Formality and discretion in successful R&D projects

In the quest to improve execution of research and development (R&D) projects, this paper focuses on the association between attainment of R&D project performance objectives and the conflicts R&D project management sparks between discretion, which refers to spontaneity, desire for change and breaking of rules, and formality, which refers to structure, stability, and following the rules. Since no solid theory exists, managers are uncertain whether both formality and discretion can be simultaneously applied, though it is clear that both are needed in R&D projects. This study aims to develop a model that conceptualizes and brings empirical evidence for the relationship between formality, discretion and R&D project performance. More than 1500 participants from 62 R&D projects, and 248 customer representatives in one high technology electronics company responded to questionnaires that measured formality, discretion, uncertainty, and additional control variables. Each project's performance was assessed using the company's information system on deviation from objectives in unit-cost (in US$), total project cost (in US$), time-to-market (in months), project product mean time between failures (MTBF) and mean time to repair (MTTR), and customer satisfaction. Results demonstrated that formality and discretion are distinct constructs of project execution. Each was found to positively affect R&D project performance; moreover, interaction existed in their relationships with performance. In other words, the positive relationship between formality and the performance achievement in R&D projects is stronger in projects that allow higher discretion than in projects that restrict members’ discretion. Implications for R&D management theory and practice are discussed.