Boswellia Species Research Articles

Developing conservation strategies for endemic tree species when faced with time and data constraints: Boswellia spp. on Socotra (Yemen)

Many endemic tree species have important scientific, ecological and economic value but the scarcity of information about their biological and ecological features makes it difficult to develop conservation strategies for them. A four-step approach is presented to address this problem, based on the analysis of data collected in a limited-duration field study: (1) Data collected are used to analyse the ecological niche, population structure and regeneration status of the species in question. (2) Several IUCN Red List (RL) parameters, useful for assessing the species’ risk of extinction, are measured, including population counts, number of locations, extent and area of occurrence. (3) The IUCN RL parameters are used together with the other information gathered to set preliminary conservation priorities. (4) The analysis of utilization pattern is used to develop conservation actions specific to the environmental and socio-economic context. To test the applicability of this approach Boswellia spp. of Socotra island were analysed. Ground-rooted species (B. ameero, B. elongata and B. socotrana) were the most abundant and widespread and, according to the spatial analysis, were characterised by a geo-altitudinal zonation. However, the Weibull functions fitted on their stem diameters, and the absence or presence of only a small number of saplings highlighted a poor regeneration status. In the absence of conservation actions, these species will probably be subject to a progressive decline because of uncontrolled grazing. Of the four cliff-rooted species, which grow in sites that are less accessible to livestock, two (B. popoviana and B. dioscorides) were of lower conservation priority and may become the most numerically abundant. Conversely, the other two (B. nana and B. bullata), which may be threatened by stochastic events because of their reduced populations and small number of locations, were considered of very high priority. Different conservation actions were then identified for each species. In particular, for Boswellia species producing gum, the conservation-through-use action was discussed as a potential option.

Boswellia serrata, a potential antiinflammatory agent: an overview.

The resin of Boswellia species has been used as incense in religious and cultural ceremonies and in medicines since time immemorial. Boswellia serrata (Salai/Salai guggul), is a moderate to large sized branching tree of family Burseraceae (Genus Boswellia), grows in dry mountainous regions of India, Northern Africa and Middle East. Oleo gum-resin is tapped from the incision made on the trunk of the tree and is then stored in specially made bamboo basket for removal of oil content and getting the resin solidified. After processing, the gum-resin is then graded according to its flavour, colour, shape and size. In India, the States of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh are the main source of Boswellia serrata. Regionally, it is also known by different names. The oleo gum-resins contain 30-60% resin, 5-10% essential oils, which are soluble in the organic solvents, and the rest is made up of polysaccharides. Gum-resin extracts of Boswellia serrata have been traditionally used in folk medicine for centuries to treat various chronic inflammatory diseases. The resinous part of Boswellia serrata possesses monoterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes, tetracyclic triterpenic acids and four major pentacyclic triterpenic acids i.e. β-boswellic acid, acetyl-β-boswellic acid, 11-keto-β-boswellic acid and acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid, responsible for inhibition of pro-inflammatory enzymes. Out of these four boswellic acids, acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid is the most potent inhibitor of 5-lipoxygenase, an enzyme responsible for inflammation.

Phytochemical composition and in vitro antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of essential oils of three endemic Soqotraen Boswellia species

The chemical composition of three essential oils obtained from the barks of three endemic Boswellia species namely, Boswellia dioscorides, Boswellia elongata and Boswellia socotrana which were collected from the Soqotra Island (Yemen), was investigated. In parallel to that evaluation of their antimicrobial and antioxidant activities was also carried out. The investigation led to the identification of 72, 70 and 67 constituents for B.dioscorides, B. elongata, and B. socotrana, respectively. The B. dioscorides oil was found to have a high content of monoterpene hydrocarbons (32.8%) with α-thujene (9.3%) and α-pinene (8.3%) as main components. Whereas, the essential oil of B. elongata was characterised by high diterpene content (31.7%), in which incensol (14.8%) was found to be the major constituent. On the other hand, the oil obtained from the B. socotrana was found to be predominated of monoterpene hydrocarbons (26.4%) and oxygenated monoterpenes (30.7%) with p-cymene (13.0%), 2-hydroxy-5-methoxy-acetophenone (16.3%) and camphor (11.6%). All essential oils possessed antimicrobial activity especially against Gram-positive bacteria with MIC-values between 1.8 and 17.2mg/ml. Furthermore, the DPPH-radical scavenging assay exhibited only weak antioxidant activities (28%) at 1.0mg/ml.

Inhibition of microsomal prostaglandin E2 synthase‐1 as a molecular basis for the anti‐inflammatory actions of boswellic acids from frankincense

Frankincense, the gum resin derived from Boswellia species, showed anti-inflammatory efficacy in animal models and in pilot clinical studies. Boswellic acids (BAs) are assumed to be responsible for these effects but their anti-inflammatory efficacy in vivo and their molecular modes of action are incompletely understood. A protein fishing approach using immobilized BA and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) spectroscopy were used to reveal microsomal prostaglandin E(2) synthase-1 (mPGES1) as a BA-interacting protein. Cell-free and cell-based assays were applied to confirm the functional interference of BAs with mPGES1. Carrageenan-induced mouse paw oedema and rat pleurisy models were utilized to demonstrate the efficacy of defined BAs in vivo. Human mPGES1 from A549 cells or in vitro-translated human enzyme selectively bound to BA affinity matrices and SPR spectroscopy confirmed these interactions. BAs reversibly suppressed the transformation of prostaglandin (PG)H(2) to PGE(2) mediated by mPGES1 (IC(50) = 3-10 µM). Also, in intact A549 cells, BAs selectively inhibited PGE(2) generation and, in human whole blood, β-BA reduced lipopolysaccharide-induced PGE(2) biosynthesis without affecting formation of the COX-derived metabolites 6-keto PGF(1α) and thromboxane B(2) . Intraperitoneal or oral administration of β-BA (1 mg·kg(-1) ) suppressed rat pleurisy, accompanied by impaired levels of PGE(2) and β-BA (1 mg·kg(-1) , given i.p.) also reduced mouse paw oedema, both induced by carrageenan. Suppression of PGE(2) formation by BAs via interference with mPGES1 contribute to the anti-inflammatory effectiveness of BAs and of frankincense, and may constitute a biochemical basis for their anti-inflammatory properties.

HPTLC Fingerprint Profile of Extracts from Gum, Bark and Leaf of Boswellia serrata Linn. in Different Solvents

Introduction:Boswellia serrata Linn. tree is commonly found in India. The therapeutic value of its gum (guggulu) has been known to possess good anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, anti-proliferative and analgesic activities. Oleo-gum resins from Boswellia species are used in traditional medicine in India and African countries for the treatment of a variety of diseases.Methods: Chromatographic techniques were used for separation of components from different extracts of plant parts. This study was planned to develop a fingerprint profile of drug extracts from different parts of Boswellia serrata Linn. i.e., bark, gum and leaf in different solvents such as petroleum ether, chloroform and water.Results: A high-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) method for the separation of the active constituents in Boswellia serrata extracts has been developed and TLC of these extracts on silica gel precoated aluminium plates of Merck by automatic TLC applicator and using solvent gradient system was performed.Conclusion: The HPTLC method for routine quality control of present species can be carried out using this method for different extracts of plant parts and serve in standardization of the drug.

Lupeolic acid derivatives from Boswellia species as inhibitors of the cytosolic phospholipase A2α

Lupeolic acid derivatives from Boswellia species as inhibitors of the cytosolic phospholipase A2α

<I>Boswellia</I> resin: from religious ceremonies to medical uses; a review of in-vitro, in-vivo and clinical trials

Despite its historical-religious, cultural and medical importance, Boswellia has not been thoroughly studied, and gaps still exist between our knowledge of the traditional uses of the resin and the scientific data available. Here we review the pharmacology of Boswellia resin and of the small molecules identified as the active ingredients of the resin. The resin of Boswellia species ('frankincense', 'olibanum') has been used as incense in religious and cultural ceremonies since the beginning of written history. Its medicinal properties are also widely recognized, mainly in the treatment of inflammatory conditions, as well as in some cancerous diseases, wound healing and for its antimicrobial activity. Until recently, work on Boswellia focused on the immunomodulatory properties of the resin and boswellic acids were considered to be the main, if not the only, active ingredients of the resin. Hence, this family of triterpenoids was investigated by numerous groups, both in vitro and in vivo. These compounds were shown to exert significant anti-inflammatory and pro-apoptotic activity in many assays: in vitro, in vivo and in clinical trials. We recently found incensole acetate and its derivatives, which are major components of Boswellia resin, to be nuclear factor-kappaB inhibitors, thus suggesting that they are, at least in part, responsible for its anti-inflammatory effects. Incensole acetate also exerts a robust neuroprotective effect after brain trauma in mice. Furthermore, it causes behavioural as well as anti-depressive and anxiolytic effects in mice. It is also a potent agonist of the transient receptor potential (TRP)V3 channel. It thus seems that incensole acetate and its derivatives play a significant role in the effects that Boswellia resin exerts on biological systems. Altogether, studies on Boswellia resin have provided an arsenal of bio-active small molecules with a considerable therapeutic potential that is far from being utilized.

Boswellia resin: from religious ceremonies to medical uses; a review of in-vitro, in-vivo and clinical trials

Abstract Objectives Despite its historical-religious, cultural and medical importance, Boswellia has not been thoroughly studied, and gaps still exist between our knowledge of the traditional uses of the resin and the scientific data available. Here we review the pharmacology of Boswellia resin and of the small molecules identified as the active ingredients of the resin. Key findings The resin of Boswellia species (‘frankincense’, ‘olibanum’) has been used as incense in religious and cultural ceremonies since the beginning of written history. Its medicinal properties are also widely recognized, mainly in the treatment of inflammatory conditions, as well as in some cancerous diseases, wound healing and for its antimicrobial activity. Until recently, work on Boswellia focused on the immunomodulatory properties of the resin and boswellic acids were considered to be the main, if not the only, active ingredients of the resin. Hence, this family of triterpenoids was investigated by numerous groups, both in vitro and in vivo. These compounds were shown to exert significant anti-inflammatory and pro-apoptotic activity in many assays: in vitro, in vivo and in clinical trials. We recently found incensole acetate and its derivatives, which are major components of Boswellia resin, to be nuclear factor-κB inhibitors, thus suggesting that they are, at least in part, responsible for its anti-inflammatory effects. Incensole acetate also exerts a robust neuroprotective effect after brain trauma in mice. Furthermore, it causes behavioural as well as anti-depressive and anxiolytic effects in mice. It is also a potent agonist of the transient receptor potential (TRP)V3 channel. It thus seems that incensole acetate and its derivatives play a significant role in the effects that Boswellia resin exerts on biological systems. Conclusions Altogether, studies on Boswellia resin have provided an arsenal of bio-active small molecules with a considerable therapeutic potential that is far from being utilized.

Inhibition Akt by tetracyclic triterpenoids induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in prostate cancer cells.

AACR Annual Meeting-- Apr 12-16, 2008; San Diego, CA 628 Akt are serine/threonine kinases controling cell metabolism, proliferation, and apoptosis. Akt activation is associated with aggressive behaviour of prostate cancer. Akt1 and Akt2 are the major isoforms expressed in androgen-dependent LNCaP and androgen-independent PC-3 and DU 145 prostate cancer cells as measured by quantitative real-time PCR. Three structurally different Akt inhibitors were cytotoxic for prostate cancer cells indicating that the Akt pathway is indispensable for their viability. Oleogum resins from Boswellia species contain a complex mixture of triterpenoids with antitumor properties. In search for well-tolerated stable Akt inhibitors, we isolated several tetracyclic triterpenoids and purified them to chemical homogeneity. 3-Oxo-tirucallic acid, 3-α-acetoxy-tirucallic acid and 3-β-acetoxy-tirucallic acid potently inhibited the activities of human recombinant Akt1 and Akt2 in in vitro kinase assays, and Akt immunoprecipitated from PC-3 cells, but not the activity of IκB kinase. Interaction of Akt with the triterpenoids was quantified using surface plasmon resonance. The tetracyclic triterpenoids inhibited the phosphorylation of cellular Akt and glycogen synthase kinase-3β, whereas extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 phosphorylation was increased. Further, the compounds inhibited nuclear accumulation of p65/relA, the androgen receptor, β-catenin, c-myc and the expression of cyclin D1, followed by hypophosphorylation of retinoblastoma protein. These events culminated in cell cycle arrest and induction of apoptosis. Selective down-regulation of Akt1, but not of Akt2 by siRNA similarly reduced the cell viability. In addition, the tetracyclic triterpenoids inhibited proliferation and induced apoptosis in tumors xenografted onto chick chorioallantoic membranes. These results suggest that inhibition of Akt is sufficient to trigger apoptosis in prostate cancer cells. The isolated tetracyclic triterpenoids represent a new class of Akt inhibitors with anticancer properties in human prostate cancer cells. This work was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe.

Triterpenoids as Anti-inflammatory Compounds of Natural Origin

Despite the progress in understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying chronic inflammation, the current treatment options are not satisfactory. The transcription factor NF-κB, a key player in the development and progression of chronic inflammation, is considered a promising target for therapeutic intervention. In Ayurvedic medicine, extracts from the oleogum resin from Boswellia serrata are being used as anti-inflammatory remedies. After purification to chemical homogeneity, we have identified a number of pentacyclic triterpenoids including acetyl-boswellic acids (ABAs). Using LPS as an activator of human monocytes, we found that ABAs inhibit NF-κB signaling. We identified specific inhibitory effects on IκB kinase (IKK), which is pivotal for the degradation of the NF-κB inhibitor IκB, as well as the phosphorylation of p65, two steps essential for NF-κB activation and the subsequent cytokine expression. Using active human recombinant IKKα and IKKβ, we positively confirmed the direct effect of the ABAs on the IKK complex. We further studied the effects of systemically applied AKβBA on the development of atherosclerotic lesions in apolipoprotein E-deficient (apoE−/−) mice. Atherosclerotic lesion formation was accelerated in those animals by weekly intraperitoneal lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injections. LPS alone increased the atherosclerotic lesion size by two-fold and treatment with AKβBA significantly reduced it by about 50%. Daily treatment of the mice with AKβBA potently inhibited the NF-κB activation in atherosclerotic plaques and led to significant down-regulation of several NF-κB-dependent genes such as MCP-1, MCP-3, IL-1α, MIP-2, VEGF and TF. By contrast, AKβBA did not affect the plasma concentrations of triglycerides, total cholesterol, and various subsets of lymphocyte-derived cytokines. Thus, the inhibition of NF-κB signalling by constituents of the oleogum resins from Boswellia species might represent an alternative for conventional treatments of chronic inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis. Acknowledgements: This work was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe.

Gender Medicine and Frankincense: Novel Findings in Inflammation Research

Detailed insights into the pathobiochemical mechanisms of the inflammatory process and the molecular actions of anti-inflammatory drugs are determinants for successful intervention with inflammatory diseases. Gender differences regarding susceptibility to inflammatory diseases are well known, for example rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus more often affect women. In asthma, sex differences are apparent with a male predominance in childhood, whereas after puberty females predominate, due to a drop in males, reflecting a protective function of androgens. However, the biochemical mechanisms underlying these gender disparities are not understood. Leukotrienes, generated by the 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) pathway, are involved in inflammatory and allergic disorders, and leukotriene receptor antagonists are used in asthma therapy. We found that leukotriene formation is substantially higher in females versus males, accompanied by different 5-LO trafficking, due to male-specific activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERKs). The differences are directly related to male/female testosterone levels. Our data suggest that gender issues should be considered in the use of anti-leukotrienes as therapeutics to optimize pharmacological therapy, in men and women. The anti-inflammatory properties of frankincense, the gum resin derived from Boswellia species, are well-recognized. Boswellic acids (BAs) are major ingredients of frankincense that were shown to inhibit 5-LO in vitro, but recent data question the pharmacological relevance of such interference in vivo. We report about the identification of human cathepsin G as pharmacologically relevant target of BAs. In particular, the major naturally occurring β-BA, reaching pharmacological relevant plasma levels (6.5–10 μM) after oral intake of medical frankincense preparations, potently inhibits cathepsin G in vitro and ex vivo, and exhibits high efficacy in animal models of inflammation, supporting an anti-inflammatory efficacy of frankincense in patients.

In vitroanti-biofilm activity ofBoswelliaspp. oleogum resin essential oils

To evaluate the anti-biofilm activity of the commercially available essential oils from two Boswellia species. The susceptibility of staphylococcal and Candida albicans biofilms was determined by methyltiazotetrazolium (MTT) staining. At concentrations ranging from 217.3 microg ml(-1) (25% v/v) to 6.8 microg ml(-1) (0.75% v/v), the essential oil of Boswellia papyrifera showed considerable activity against both Staphylococcus epidermidis DSM 3269 and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213 biofilms. The anti-microbial efficacy of this oil against S. epidermidis RP62A biofilms was also tested using live/dead staining in combination with fluorescence microscopy, and we observed that the essential oil of B. papyrifera showed an evident anti-biofilm effect and a prevention of adhesion at sub-MIC concentrations. Boswellia rivae essential oil was very active against preformed C. albicans ATCC 10231 biofilms and inhibited the formation of C. albicans biofilms at a sub-MIC concentration. Essential oils of Boswellia spp. could effectively inhibit the growth of biofilms of medical relevance. Boswellia spp. essential oils represent an interesting source of anti-microbial agents in the development of new strategies to prevent and treat biofilms.

Ambilobea, a new genus from Madagascar, the position of Aucoumea, and comments on the tribal classification of the frankincense and myrrh family (Burseraceae)

Phylogenetic analyses of 46 species, representing all tribes and 14 out of 18 recognized genera of Burseraceae, are performed using nuclear ETS and plastid rps16 sequences. Boswellia madagascariensis, the only Malagasy species of this genus, is shown to belong to a clade comprising all sampled members of the current tribe Canarieae plus Triomma, whereas other species of Boswellia (including the type, B. serrata) form a clade that is strongly supported as sister to Garuga. A new genus, Ambilobea, is proposed for B. madagascariensis and the new combination A. madagascariensis is made. Ambilobea differs from Boswellia s. s. by being dioecious and by having valvate petals and, furthermore, is unique in the family by its winged tips to the petioles, by having pyrenes that remain attached to the detached valves of the fruit at dehiscence, and by its long‐spinose pollen grains. Aucoumea, a monotypic central African rain forest genus, is strongly supported as sister to a clade with the arid‐adapted Bursera and Commiphora. Boswellia s. s. and Garuga form a clade characterized by having hermaphroditic flowers. The relationships within Burseraceae emerging from this and previous phylogenetic studies are, on several points, in conflict with current tribal delimitation. The following suggestions for a new tribal classification of Burseraceae are made: 1) Beiselia, sister to the rest of the family, needs to be placed in a tribe of its own, Beiselieae, trib. nov., 2) Protieae should be restricted to Crepidospermum, Protium and Tetragastris, although generic rearrangements seem to be needed within this tribe, 3) Bursereae should be restricted to Aucoumea, Bursera and Commiphora, but generic rearrangements are needed in the Bursera–Commiphora complex, 4) the remaining genera, Ambilobea, Boswellia, Canarium, Dacryodes, Garuga, Haplolobus, Pseudodacryodes, Rosselia, Santiria, Scutinanthe, Trattinnickia and Triomma, are probably best placed in a broadly circumscribed Garugeae.

Boswellic Acids with Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitory Properties from Frankincense

Frankincense, a gum resin secreted from barks of Boswellia species, is reputed in Arabian folk medicine to improve the memory. In this study, the acetylcholinesterase inhibitory effect of extracts of frankincense and their constituents were investigated. The ethyl acetate soluble fraction from methanol extracts showed the greatest inhibition of acetylcholinesterase. Bioassay-guided fractionation was carried out to isolate several boswellic acids, and their structures were determined spectroscopically. The boswellic acids showing the most inhibitory activity on acetylcholinesterase were 11α-hydroxy-β-boswellic acid (1) and 11-keto-β-boswellic acid (5), whilst others isolated i.e. 3α-acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid (2), 3α-acetyl-11α-hydroxy-β-boswellic acid (3), 11α-methoxy-β-boswellic acid (4), β-boswellic acid (6) and α-boswellic acid (7) were inactive. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity appears to be associated with the presence of either the free hydroxyl group or keto group at C-11 and of the free hydroxyl group at C-3 in the ursane skeleton.

Natural gum and resin bearing species of Ethiopia and their potential applications

Ethiopia is one of the countries well endowed with various species of Acacia, Boswellia and Commiphora that are known to produce gum arabic, frankincense and myrrh, respectively. Over 60 gum and resin bearing species are found in the country. The total area of oleo-gum resin bearing woodlands cover about 2.9 million ha of land in the country, with over 300,000 metric tons of natural gum production potential. Boswellia papyrifera is a chief gum resin producing tree species in Ethiopia. The total area covered by the species is estimated to be more than 1.5 million ha. Frankincense and myrrh are used in medicines, beverages and liqueurs, cosmetics, detergents, creams and perfumery, paints, adhesives and dyes manufacturing. Gum Arabic is used as stabilizing, in food and drink industries; in pharmaceuticals, in printing and textile industries. Despite the enormous socio-economic importance of these natural products, the species are declining at an alarming rate due to degradation resulted from agricultural expansion, overgrazing, fire, poor incense harvesting practices, etc. Therefore, research and development efforts and international collaborations could have strong potentials to the conservation, production and commercialization for the benefits of the local, national as well as the international communities.

Identification and functional analysis of cyclooxygenase-1 as a molecular target of boswellic acids

Boswellic acids (BAs) are assumed as the anti-inflammatory principles of Boswellia species. Initially, it was found that BAs inhibit leukotriene biosynthesis and 5-lipoxygenase (EC number 1.13.11.34), whereas suppression of prostaglandin formation and inhibition of cyclooxygenases (COX, EC number 1.14.99.1) has been excluded. Recently, we demonstrated that BAs also interfere with platelet-type 12-lipoxygenase. Here, we show that BAs, preferably 3- O-acetyl-11-keto-β-BA (AKBA), concentration-dependently inhibit COX-1 product formation in intact human platelets (IC 50 = 6 μM) as well as the activity of isolated COX-1 enzyme in cell-free assays (IC 50 = 32 μM). The inhibitory effect of AKBA is reversible, and increased levels of arachidonic acid (AA) as substrate for COX-1 impair the efficacy. COX-1 in platelet lysates or isolated COX-1 selectively bound to an affinity matrix composed of immobilized BAs linked via glutaric acid to sepharose and this binding was reversed by ibuprofen or AA. Automated molecular docking of BAs into X-ray structures of COX-1 yielded positive Chemscore values for BAs, indicating favorable binding to the active site of the enzyme. In contrast, COX-2 was less efficiently inhibited by BAs as compared to COX-1, and pull-down experiments as well as docking studies exclude strong affinities of BAs towards COX-2. In conclusion, BAs, in particular AKBA, directly interfere with COX-1 and may mediate their anti-inflammatory actions not only by suppression of lipoxygenases, but also by inhibiting cyclooxygenases, preferentially COX-1.

Constraints to smallholders production of frankincense in Metema district, North-western Ethiopia

Frankincense, an aromatic exudate obtained from several Boswellia species, is an important commodity with the potential to invigorate economic development of the drylands of Ethiopia. Local people have been producing and trading frankincense for centuries to diversify their income sources. However, local people's involvement in the production of frankincense varies considerably among the producing dryland regions of the country. The objectives of this study were to investigate: (i) the potential of frankincense production, (ii) socio-cultural, economic and policy factors affecting the involvement of local people in the production of frankincense, and (iii) the current status of Boswellia woodlands in Metema district, which is one of the major frankincense producing areas in Ethiopia. The results showed that Boswellia papyrifera comprised 51% of the species composition of the vegetation of the district with 253.5 kg/ha/year production potential. The total annual frankincense production potential of the district was estimated to be 79,168 tons. However, almost all inhabitants do not benefit economically from the species due to: (i) cultural influence (67%), (ii) unattractiveness of income from frankincense compared to other economic activities in the area (38%), property tenure (27%), government policy on incense production (20%), poor knowledge on frankincense production (19%) and unawareness of the potential of frankincense as a source of income (5%). The absence of direct economic benefits for the local people from the woodlands is triggering their widespread degradation mostly from human induced fire, improper forest use and agricultural land expansion.

Boswellic Acids: Biological Actions and Molecular Targets

Gum resin extracts of Boswellia species have been traditionally applied in folk medicine for centuries to treat various chronic inflammatory diseases, and experimental data from animal models and studies with human subjects confirmed the potential of B. spec extracts for the treatment of not only inflammation but also of cancer. Analysis of the ingredients of these extracts revealed that the pentacyclic triterpenes boswellic acids (BAs) possess biological activities and appear to be responsible for the respective pharmacological actions. Approaches in order to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying the biological effects of BAs identified 5-lipoxygenase, human leukocyte elastase, toposiomerase I and II, as well as IkappaB kinases as molecular targets of BAs. Moreover, it was shown that depending on the cell type and the structure of the BAs, the compounds differentially interfere with signal transduction pathways including Ca(2+/-) and MAPK signaling in various blood cells, related to functional cellular processes important for inflammatory reactions and tumor growth. This review summarizes the biological actions of BAs on the cellular and molecular level and attempts to put the data into perspective of the beneficial effects manifested in animal studies and trials with human subjects related to inflammation and cancer.

Boswellic Acids in Chronic Inflammatory Diseases

Oleogum resins from BOSWELLIA species are used in traditional medicine in India and African countries for the treatment of a variety of diseases. Animal experiments showed anti-inflammatory activity of the extract. The mechanism of this action is due to some boswellic acids. It is different from that of NSAID and is related to components of the immune system. The most evident action is the inhibition of 5-lipoxygenase. However, other factors such as cytokines (interleukins and TNF-alpha) and the complement system are also candidates. Moreover, leukocyte elastase and oxygen radicals are targets. Clinical studies, so far with pilot character, suggest efficacy in some autoimmune diseases including rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis and bronchial asthma. Side effects are not severe when compared to modern drugs used for the treatment of these diseases.

Analysis of frankincense from various Boswellia species with inhibitory activity on human drug metabolising cytochrome P450 enzymes using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry after automated on-line extraction

In our search for herbal remedies with inhibitory activity on cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes, we identified extracts of the gum-resin of Boswellia carteri, Boswellia frereana, Boswellia sacra and Boswellia serrata as equally potent, non-selective inhibitors of the major drug metabolising CYP enzymes 1A2/2C8/2C9/2C19/2D6 and 3A4. LC/LC/ESI-MS fingerprint analyses of the boswellic acids 11-keto-β-boswellic acid, α-boswellic acid, β-boswellic acid and their 3- O-acylated derivatives were used for the authentication of the commercially obtained frankincense samples. Although the boswellic acids could be identified as moderate to potent inhibitors of the applied CYP enzymes, they are not the major CYP inhibitory principle of frankincense.