Border Of Range Research Articles

Microhabitat use within a contact zone of parapatric land salamanders in the Swiss Alps

Studies investigating the contact zones in parapatric species can provide valuable insights into the mechanisms that cause range borders. Such studies can also provide a better understanding of the mechanisms which allow coexistence within contact zones. In land salamanders, parapatric range limits among species are often determined by abiotic factors and interspecific competition. The ranges of the parapatricSalamandra salamandraandS. atranarrowly overlap in the European Alps. Climatic gradients that determine their parapatric range margins suggest dissimilar species-habitat-relationships. However, habitat use for these species has not yet been studied in the contact zone where the parapatric ranges overlap and where the species locally co-occur in syntopy. To better understand their parapatric range limits and local syntopy, we compared the species’ microhabitat use in a contact zone in Switzerland and quantified the degree of interspecific niche overlap in relation to resource availability. We observed that most studied microhabitat variables were neither selected nor avoided by the two species, suggesting random use of the habitat for the variables that we studied. Interspecific niche overlap was generally large, but did not differ from that expected by chance. Unlike previous studies that analyzed patterns of co-occurrence of these species at larger spatial scales, we observed no niche differentiation within the contact zone. Both species likely select the same areas that are suitable and available for salamanders while they similarly avoid generally unsuitable habitat. This indicates that niche differentiation can vary depending on the spatial scale where it is investigated.

Root biomass of Fagus sylvatica L. stands depending on the climatic conditions

Abstract Fine root biomass of forest trees is a recognised indicator of environmental changes in the conditions of global climate change. The present study was carried out in six old-growth beech forests (112-140 years) located in different climatic conditions on the range border of Fagus sylvatica L. in Poland. The root biomass was investigated by soil coring method in the upper soil layers (0-5 cm, 5-15 cm and total layer 0-15 cm). The significantly greater total root biomass was found in the beech stands, which characterised by higher average precipitation and lower average annual temperatures in the period 2000-2005. The share of roots of diameter > 5 mm increased with increasing depth of top soils. Biomass of fine roots (diameter ≤ 2 mm) decreased with increasing depth of upper soil layers. The average biomass of fine roots ranged from 175.36 to 418.16 g m-2 in the soil layer 0-15 cm. The significant differences of fine root biomass were found between studied stands in the soil layers 0-5 cm and 0-15 cm. Also, it was found significant positive correlation between fine root biomass in the soil layer 0-15 cm and precipitation during the growing season in 2006. Precipitation in the study period was connected with very high rainfall in August 2006, repeatedly exceeding the long-term monthly levels. Regional climatic conditions, in that extreme weather events in growing seasons can significantly to affect changes of fine root biomass of forest trees, consequently, changes of relationships between the growth of above- and below-ground of the old-growth forest stands.

An Analysis of Micronuclei and DNA Damage Induced by Methotrexate Treatment of Male Albino Mice

Background: Methotrexate is an antineoplastic, antipsoriatic and antirheumatic agent belongs to the group of antimetabolites and inhibits folic acid metabolism. Materials and methods: To investigate its possible effect, sixty male mice were randomly assigned to one of four groups (one control and three treated groups with different doses of methotrexate). Mice of groups 1, 2 and 3 were intraperitoneally injected with 2.5, 5 and 10 mg /kg b.wt. methotrexate respectively. All the control and treated animals were sacrificed at 24, 48 and 72 hour by cervical dislocation post treatment. Results:Micronucleus assay results showed that methotrexate treatment induced genotoxicity in bone marrow cells, the number of micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes (MNPCEs) and the ratio of polychromatic erythrocytes / normochromatic erythrocytes was gradually increased significantly (P < 0.001) by increasing dose and time of treatment in methotrexate treated groups in comparison with the control group. An analysis of randomly amplified polymorphism DNA-polymerase chain reaction (RAPD-PCR) showed different ranges of DNA modifications in the treated groups after 24, 48 and 72 hour of treatment in comparison with the control group. Results of this study indicate that methotrexate treatment induced cytotoxic and genotoxic effect on bone marrow cells and DNA content of male albino mice even after a low dose and single treatment. Conclusion: Therefore, the therapeutic uses of methotrexate should be restricted to a very narrow range border.

Morphological variability of Consolida regalis seeds of south-eastern and central Europe

The aim of the paper was to analyse the morphological variability of Consolida regalis Gray (common name Forking Larkspur) seeds in populations derived from different geographic origins. A review of available literature showed scarcity of data on seed sizes and a complete lack of information describing the morphological variation of C. regalis seeds in the geographic gradient. Therefore, the main aim of the study was to analyse the morphological variability of C. regalis seeds from south-eastern and central Europe. Larkspur seeds, collected during expeditions spanning 2012–2014 from 29 sites located in Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova and Poland, were the study material. Four biometric traits were analysed, that is, the length, the width, the perimeter and the area of the seeds. The pictures of the surface structure and sculpture of the seeds were made using the scanning electron microscope (SEM). The results showed differences in biometric traits and the seed sculpture across the latitudinal transect. There was a trend observed of an increase in the length, the width, the perimeter and the area of the seeds towards the northern border of the geographic species range. Besides the geographic factor, the morphological variation of larkspur seeds was affected by environmental conditions (mainly temperature) in which plants grew and availability of habitat resources.

Is it getting hot in here? Adjustment of hydraulic parameters in six boreal and temperate tree species after 5years of warming.

Global temperatures (T) are rising, and for many plant species, their physiological response to this change has not been well characterized. In particular, how hydraulic parameters may change has only been examined experimentally for a few species. To address this, we measured characteristics of the hydraulic architecture of six species growing in ambient T and ambient +3.4°C T plots in two experimentally warmed forest sites in Minnesota. These sites are at the temperate-boreal ecotone, and we measured three species from each forest type. We hypothesized that relative to boreal species, temperate species near their northern range border would increase xylem conduit diameters when grown under elevated T. We also predicted a continuum of responses among wood types, with conduit diameter increases correlating with increases in the complexity of wood structure. Finally, we predicted that increases in conduit diameter and specific hydraulic conductivity would positively affect photosynthetic rates and growth. Our results generally supported our hypotheses, and conduit diameter increased under elevated T across all species, although this pattern was driven predominantly by three species. Two of these species were temperate angiosperms, but one was a boreal conifer, contrary to predictions. We observed positive relationships between the change in specific hydraulic conductivity and both photosynthetic rate (P=0.080) and growth (P=0.012). Our results indicate that species differ in their ability to adjust hydraulically to increases in T. Specifically, species with more complex xylem anatomy, particularly those individuals growing near the cooler edge of their range, appeared to be better able to increase conduit diameters and specific hydraulic conductivity, which permitted increases in photosynthesis and growth. Our data support results that indicate individual's ability to physiologically adjust is related to their location within their species range, and highlight that some wood types may adjust more easily than others.

Spatial and begging behaviours of juvenile Tawny Owls (Strix aluco) from fledging to independence under contrasting food conditions

The post-fledging dependency period (PFDP: from fledging to cessation of parental care) is a critical yet poorly studied life history transition phase during which juveniles mature and develop skills for independence. We studied the spatial and vocal behaviour of radio-tagged juvenile Tawny Owls in 41 broods from fledging to independence (56–84 days) in 6 years of contrasting food conditions. Dispersion and nocturnal movements increased during the first 20–30 days post-fledging, after which the young roamed the entire natal territory, indicating fully or almost fully developed flying skills. During the entire PFDP, siblings were strongly associated both during the day (mean inter-sibling distances decreased from 11 to 0.6 m from the first to the 30th day after fledging) and at night (mean distances decreased from 32 to 6 m during the same period), and rarely moved outside the borders of the parental home range. The probability of begging per 20-min nocturnal observation period increased from 21 % at fledging to 80 % at independence during years of good food supply, but remained high (>82 %) in years of poor food supply. No change was observed in nocturnal movement distances or begging rates during the last 5 days before juvenile independence. Hence, juvenile Tawny Owls old enough to survive on their own invested heavily in begging, with no noticeable signs of increased hunting or exploration of potential settling areas outside the natal range, until they were no longer fed by their parents.

The Genesis and Evolution of the Caspian Sea Lagoons as Avifauna Refuges at the Transboundary Scale

The article summarizes 34 years (1980-2014) of the original observations of the genesis and evolution stages of the Caspian lagoons. A model of the formation and evolution of the coastal lagoons has been worked out. It can be applied to the modelling of the global geoecological scenario along all the world’s coasts characterized by a steady transgression of their marine areas. The lagoons had been formed in a “bottleneck”, a narrow migration corridor, traversed by the largest migration route of trans-Palearctic species in Russia. This route is part of the West Siberian-East African migration range. Year round bird censuses (n = 746) were taken by the author in 1995-2014 along two key routes in the regions of Turalinskaya and Sulakskaya lagoons of Daghestan (the western coast of the Middle Caspian Sea). The meridional orientation of lagoons, location of the migration trajectory and a wide range of habitats in the study area contribute to the preservation of 294 Eurasian bird species. After formation of the lagoons, the breeding avifauna of the Caspian Sea Region of Central Daghestan has added 32 taxa. Among the species recorded at the lagoons, 50 are included in the IUCN Red List, Red Data Books of Russia and Daghestan. The reconstruction analysis of the migration trajectory compiled according to the data of the Russian Bird Ringing Centre allowed us to determine the population distribution geography for the birds regularly migrating along the western coast of the Caspian Sea and refine borders of theWest Siberian-East African migration range. Thus, according to the information received, the current migratory range should be greatly extended to cover the area from the British Isles in the West Palearctic to Lake Baikal in the east, including the extreme west and south of Africa.

Spatiotemporal dynamics of geographical ranges of red deer (Cervus elaphus, Cervidae) and Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus, Cervidae) in Yakutia

Patterns of expansion of geographical ranges of red deer and Siberian roe deer in Yakutia during the 20th century are considered. The area inhabited by red deer in Yakutia has increased almost fourfold over the past 50 years, with an expansion of over 200000 km2 toward the northwest. The geographical range of roe deer in the Lena–Amga interfluve has also changed considerably during the same period. Roe deer sightings in the subarctic zone were reported. The structure of geographical ranges of the species under investigation in different ecological and geographical regions of Yakutia is discussed, and the factors influencing the transformation of geographical range borders are characterized.

ПРОБЛЕМАТИКА ИЗУЧЕНИЯ ГИДРОНИМИИ БАЛТИЙСКОГО ПРОИСХОЖДЕНИЯ НА ТЕРРИТОРИИ РОССИИ

В статье поднят широкий круг вопросов, связанных с отражением гидронимией России древнего присутствия балтов. Вся восточная половина обширного древнебалтийского этноисторического ареала приходилась на регионы Европейской России. Названия рек и озер – главный источник, позволяющий судить об их древнем расселении и некоторых особенностях их диалектного языка. Данная работа содержит обзор истории изучения гидронимии балтийского происхождения на территории России, включая критику отдельных предшествующих работ, и кратко освещает ряд вопросов, среди которых: 1) уточнение юго-восточных, восточных и особенно северо-восточных границ древнебалтийского ареала, 2) соотношение балтийского слоя с финским и иранским языковыми элементами, 3) отношение балтийской гидронимии к археологическим культурам, локализуемым в Европейской России, 4) оценка сравнительной плотности балтизмов по разным русским регионам, 5) оптимизация методики поиска и обоснования гидронимии балтийского происхождения. К статье приложены карты-схемы: 1) северо-восточного фланга ареала балтийской гидронимии, 2) максимального восточнославянского ареала балтийской гидронимии.

Integrating Parasites and Pathogens into the Study of Geographic Range Limits

The geographic distributions of all species are limited, and the determining factors that set these limits are of fundamental importance to the fields of ecology and evolutionary biology. Plant and animal ranges have been of primary concern, while those of parasites, which represent much of the Earth's biodiversity, have been neglected. Here, we review the determinants of the geographic ranges of parasites and pathogens, and explore how parasites provide novel systems with which to investigate the ecological and evolutionary processes governing host/parasite spatial distributions. Although there is significant overlap in the causative factors that determine range borders of parasites and free-living species, parasite distributions are additionally constrained by the geographic range and ecology of the host species' population, as well as by evolutionary factors that promote host-parasite coevolution. Recently, parasites have been used to infer population demographic and ecological information about their host organisms and we conclude that this strategy can be further exploited to understand geographic range limitations of both host and parasite populations.

Range expansion and retraction along a moving contact zone has no effect on the genetic diversity of two passerine birds

Disentangling the factors shaping species distributions remains a central goal in biogeography, ecology and evolutionary biology. The extrinsic pressures that may facilitate range shifts, such as climatic factors or biotic interactions are well known. However, in contrast, the possible intrinsic factors are manifold and hard to generalize across taxa. Recently, several theoretical studies have investigated the consequences of moving range borders on genetic diversity. However, empirical studies that support or refute these theoretical predictions are scarce. Moving contact zones between parapatric sister species are suitable models to test these hypotheses. Changes in genetic diversity can be tested simultaneously along the expanding and receding edges of two species of the contact zone while accounting for intra‐specific effects (e.g. introgression). The two Old World warblersHippolais polyglottaandH. icterinaform a narrow moving contact zone, where interspecific interactions are suspected to be the main factor shaping this zone. We investigated the population genetic structure of both species along a transect ranging from the core range of the expandingH. polyglottaacross the contact zone and far into the range of the recedingH. icterina. The theoretical predictions of changes in genetic diversity at the range edges were tested. No gradual change in genetic diversity was detected for both the expanding and the receding range margin. Furthermore, no genetic structure was found in either species supporting the hypothesis that long distance dispersal (LDD) occurs frequently due to the high mobility of these long‐distance migrants. The results suggest that when dispersal propensity is high and accompanied by frequent LDD events, then neither an enrichment nor a depletion of alleles along moving range edges would be detected. This these species as the probability to retain genetic diversity during exogenous induced range shifts is high in such mobile species.

Breeding persistence of Slavonian Grebe (Podiceps auritus) at long-term monitoring sites: predictors of a steep decline at the northern European range limit

The Slavonian Grebe (Podiceps auritus) has its European northern range limit in northern Norway, and is a species of national conservation concern due to its small population size and unknown population trend. Long-term monitoring at the range limit suggests breeding site use is in decline. We used annual occupancy data from 104 breeding lakes monitored since 1991 in northern Norway to investigate correlates of change in occupancy. Persistence was 100 % until 1999, but thereafter decreased to 25 % (26 lakes with breeding pairs). A particularly steep decrease occurred between 2010 and 2012. Persistence increased with the number of pairs present in each lake in the initial monitoring year of 1991. The number of grebe pairs also decreased in the lakes that had continuous breeding persistence over the entire 22-year monitoring period, suggesting that a large-scale factor caused the population decline. Over the last year of the monitoring series, lake altitude was negatively related to the probability of persistence, indicative that locally harsh climate played some role in breeding distribution. The temporal pattern of persistence was not related to mean winter temperature at the breeding sites; however, the decrease between 2010 and 2011 coincided with a late ice melt in 2010. Monitoring that includes a larger area of the species’ range is required to conclude whether the observed decline can indicate an overall decline in population size, or range fluctuations at the edge of the species’ range. However, investigating the processes that determine population range borders can give insights into important limiting factors pertinent to the conservation of species in the long term.

The downward spiral: eco‐evolutionary feedback loops lead to the emergence of ‘elastic’ ranges

In times of severe environmental changes and resulting shifts in the geographical distribution of animal and plant species it is crucial to unravel the mechanisms responsible for the dynamics of species’ ranges. Without such a mechanistic understanding, reliable projections of future species distributions are difficult to derive. Species’ ranges may be highly dynamic. One particularly interesting phenomenon is range contraction following a period of expansion, referred to as ‘elastic’ behaviour. It has been proposed that this phenomenon occurs in habitat gradients, which are characterized by a negative cline in selection for dispersal from the range core towards the margin, as one may find, for example, with increasing patch isolation. Using individual‐based simulations and numerical analyses we show that Allee effects are an important determinant of range border elasticity. If only intra‐specific processes are considered, Allee effects are even a necessary condition for ranges to exhibit elastic behavior. The eco‐evolutionary interplay between dispersal evolution, Allee effects and habitat isolation leads to lower colonization probability and higher local extinction risk after range expansions, which result in an increasing amount of marginal sink patches and consequently, range contraction. We also demonstrate that the nature of the gradient is crucial for range elasticity. Gradients which do not select for lower dispersal at the margin than in the core (especially gradients in patch size, demographic stochasticity and extinction rate) do not lead to elastic range behavior. Thus, we predict that range contractions are likely to occur after periods of expansion for species living in gradients of increasing patch isolation, which suffer from Allee effects.

The Gaosongshan epithermal gold deposit in the Lesser Hinggan Range of the Heilongjiang Province, NE China: Implications for Early Cretaceous mineralization

The newly discovered and large ca. 99Ma Gaosongshan gold deposit is located in the Lesser Hinggan (or Xinggan) Range to the west of the Jiamusi Massif. The deposit is located at the border of the Great Hinggan Range–Mongolian Orogen with the Circum-Pacific tectonic belt and has a resource of ~22t @ 6.3g/t Au. Gaosongshan is classified as an adularia–sericite epithermal deposit associated with the large tensional Shaqihe Fault and has a low-sulfide content with a high concentration of gold hosted by pure chalcedonic quartz, which makes the deposit both unique and economically important in the area. Early Cretaceous volcanic rocks host the deposit as well as other gold deposits in the region. The mineralization at Gaosongshan includes Au, Ag, Mo, Sb, As, Pb and Hg. Stable isotope studies of fluid inclusions associated with the mineralization suggest that the mineralizing fluid had a meteoric origin (DV-SMOW: −129 to −111‰; 18Ofluid: 7.9 to 13.8‰). Fluid inclusion thermography indicates that the mineralized fluid was between 150° and 310°C and had a low salinity (0.7–3.71wt.% NaCl), low density (0.48–0.94g/cm3), shallow metallogenic depth (430–1270m), and a large amount of reducing gaseous components (CH4, C2H6, CO, N2, and CO2). The presence of large quantities of flaky quartz, adularia, gas-rich fluid inclusions, low-sulfide minerals and pure gold-bearing chalcedonic quartz suggests that fluid boiling was the principal mechanism for the gold precipitation. Sulfur isotopic data (δ34S: ~ −2.4 to 2.9‰) indicate a deep magmatic origin for the mineralization, and the Pb isotopes (206Pb/204Pb: 18.14–18.46; 207Pb/204Pb: 15.51–15.57; 208Pb/204Pb: 38.01–38.40) also indicate that the metallogenic source of the deposit contained a significant mantle component. The mineralizing fluid interacted with a Late Paleozoic (ca. 260–253Ma) substrate and ca. 141–91Ma volcanic host rocks. The geological and geochemical characteristics of the deposit, and the Tuanjiegou, Dongan, Sandaowanzi and other large gold deposits represent an Early Cretaceous (114–80Ma) epithermal mineralizing events in the Lesser Hinggan Range. The belt is controlled by the volcanic Sunwu–Jiayin Basin formed in a back-arc extensional setting along an active continental margin in East China, and the gold deposits in the belt have the same genesis as porphyritic Au(–Cu) deposits along the continental margin in eastern Jilin and Heilongjiang provinces. It is here proposed that the mineralization in both regions is related to the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific plate.

Asymptotics for the Norm of Bethe Eigenstates in the Periodic Totally Asymmetric Exclusion Process

The normalization of Bethe eigenstates for the totally asymmetric simple exclusion process on a ring of \(L\) sites is studied, in the large \(L\) limit with finite density of particles, for all the eigenstates responsible for the relaxation to the stationary state on the KPZ time scale \(T\sim L^{3/2}\). In this regime, the normalization is found to be essentially equal to the exponential of the action of a scalar free field. The large \(L\) asymptotics is obtained using the Euler–Maclaurin formula for summations on segments, rectangles and triangles, with various singularities at the borders of the summation range.

Magnetotelluric characterization through the Ambargasta-Sumampa Range: The connection between the northern and southern trace of the Río de La Plata Craton – Pampean Terrane tectonic boundary

The South American Platform was part of the Western Gondwana, a collage of plates of different ages assembled in late Neoproterozoic to Cambrian times. The Transbrasiliano Lineament, a continental shear belt that transversely intersects this platform from NE to SW, has its southern expression in the tectonic boundary between the Río de La Plata Craton and the Pampean Terrane. Magnetotelluric long-period data in a W–E profile (29°30′ S) that crosses the Ambargasta-Sumampa Range and the Chaco-Pampean Plain were obtained to connect information of this mostly inferred tectonic boundary. A 2-D inversion model shows the Chacoparanense basin, Río Dulce lineament, Ambargasta-Sumampa Range and Salina de Ambargasta in the upper crust. At mid-to-lower crust and 40 km to the east of the Ambargasta-Sumampa Range, a discontinuity (500–2000 Ω m) of 20-km-wide separates two highly resistive blocks, the Río de La Plata Craton (6000–20,000 Ω m) in the east, and the Pampean Terrane (5000–20,000 Ω m) in the west. This discontinuity represents the tectonic boundary between both cratons and could be explained by the presence of graphite. The geometry of the Pampean Terrane suggests an east-dipping paleo-subduction. Our results are consistent with gravimetric and seismicity data of the study area. A more conductive feature beneath the range and the tectonic boundary was associated with the NE–SW dextral transpressive system evidenced by the mylonitic belts exposed in the Eastern Pampean Ranges. This belt represents a conjugate of the mega-shear Transbrasiliano Lineament and could be explained by fluid–rock interaction by shearing during hundreds of years. The eastern border of the Ambargasta-Sumampa Range extends the trace of the Transbrasiliano Lineament. The electrical Moho depth (40 km to the west and 35 km to the east) was identified by a high electrical contrast between the crust and upper mantle. The upper mantle shows a resistive structure beneath the Río de La Plata Craton that could have been originated by stationary delamination by the presence of hydrated lithosphere.

Effect of patterned coupled optical micro-cavities in twodimensional Si-ZnO hybrid photonic structure

The optical characterization of the Si-ZnO hybrid photonic device fabricated and studied in this work revealed its ability to selectively enhance the reflectance on specific wavelengths in the border of VIS-NIR range. This ability was attributed to the coupling of the embedded micro-cavities in the photonic crystal. The results found suggest the presence of a photonic band gap around the border of VIS-NIR range in the hybrid photonic structure studied.

Selective reflection in two-dimensional hybrid photonic structures of Si-ZnO

Hybrid two-dimensional photonic crystal structure described by a square lattice of circular air columns with embedded quasi-circular micro-cavities in a square array was fabricated on Si-ZnO substrate using the focused ion beam (FIB) technique. The optical characterization of this photonic device revealed its ability to selectively enhance the reflectance on specific wave lengths in the border of visible-near-infrared range (VIS-NIR). The behavior of the photonic hetero-structure built and studied in this work was attributed to the coupling of the probe light beam with the embedded micro-cavities in the regular square lattice of air columns describing the photonic crystal. The results obtained in this work suggest the presence of a photonic band gap around the border of VIS-NIR range in the studied hybrid photonic structure.

Phylogenetic relationships among Asiatic salamanders of the genus Salamandrella based on variability of nuclear genes

Based on sequence variation of three nuclear genome genes (BDNF, POMC, and RAG1), the phylogenetic relationships among Asiatic salamanders of the genus Salamandrella, Siberian salamander (S. keyserlingii) and Schrenk salamander (S. schrenkii), were examined. Both species demonstrated high levels of heterozygosity determined by intraspecific polymorphism. Fixed interspecific differences were revealed at one nucleotide position of the RAG1 gene, and thus the level of interspecific divergence over the three genes constituted only 0.04%. Analysis of the RAG1 polymorphism across the whole range of S. keyserlingii showed that only one gene variant, encoding for modified RAG1 recombinase, had the highest distribution to the north of the Amur region (west and northeast of Siberia). It is possible that the changes in the RAG1 gene in Siberian salamander are of an adaptive nature. However, cases of interspecific hybridization were identified in Jewish autonomous oblast (JAO), which contains one of the range borders between the two Salamandrella species.

Macromycetes in communities of Abies alba on its range border in central Poland

The paper presents results of mycocoenological examinations conducted in four nature reserves with &lt;i&gt;Abies alba&lt;/i&gt; in Central Poland (Lubiaszów, Kruszewiec, Łaznów and Gałków) in 1997-1999. A list of 288 fungi accompanying silver fir communities close to the northern limit of the occurrence of the species, including 38 species identified in associations with &lt;i&gt;Abies alba&lt;/i&gt; in Poland for the first time, is given. Statistical analysis has shown that a relationship exists between macromycete diversity, tree stand structure and plant communities such as &lt;i&gt;Tilio-Carpinetum, Luzulo pilosaee-Fagetum, Pino-Quercetum abietetosum&lt;/i&gt;.