Individual Body Temperature Research Articles

Drone-based infrared thermography to measure the intranasal temperature of baleen whales

ABSTRACT Traditional methods for quantifying the internal temperature of marine mammals require handling live animals, which is not practical for free-swimming baleen whales. Developing a less invasive, more repeatable method would significantly improve our understanding of whale health and thermal physiology. Infrared thermography (IRT) devices compatible with remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPAS) have facilitated qualitative assessments of heat signatures from marine mammals at sea, but absolute temperatures derived using this approach are rare. The goal of this study was to develop a precise empirical method for estimating intranasal temperatures of baleen whales using RPAS-based IRT. We conducted controlled field experiments and flights over North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis, NARWs) to develop and test the methodology. Two approaches were evaluated to estimate intranasal temperatures from IRT sensor intensities: a three-point empirical line regression calibrated per flight using known-temperature objects and a generalized linear model incorporating environmental variables. Controlled field experiments demonstrated that the former approach had a median bias of −0.6°C (interquartile range: 1.5ºC), while the latter approach had unexplained negative proportional bias with increasing true temperature of the target object. After accounting for bias, the former approach yielded an average intranasal temperature of 26.9 ± 1.7°C for 21 unique NARWs. The anatomy of the mysticete upper respiratory tract and physiological heat conservation strategies may explain why estimates were low compared to internal temperatures measured from baleen whales using other techniques (30–39ºC). Variability within whales was less than ± 2°C, supporting the use of these methods to monitor the health of individuals over time. However, variability among whales was greater (up to 7ºC). Improvements in our understanding of whale physiology and respiratory mechanics and advancements in RPAS-based IRT calibrations could make this technology more reliable for assessing individual body temperatures and monitoring populations in the future.

Demography and natural history of the damselfly Mesamphiagrion gaudiimontanum (Coenagrionidae), a Páramo endemic species in the Colombian Andes

The páramos are high mountain ecosystems in the tropical regions of the New World, and they are particularly threatened by climate change. The Belmira páramo complex in Colombia is home to Mesamphiagrion gaudiimontanum, an endemic and endangered damselfly species. This study presents the first demographic assessment of M. gaudii­montanum using the capture-recapture method to estimate population size, survival, and detection probabilities, focusing on differences in age, sex, female color morphs, and parasite infestation. The population size was estimated to be 730 ± 186.59 individuals, with an average survival probability of 0.89 ± 0.04 and a life expectancy of 8.34 days, these data are like the reported for other populations in the same genus in harsh environmental conditions. Ectoparasitic mites were more common on juveniles than adults. After several hours of observing the species few copula events have been recorded, all of them involving juvenile adult females, which points to a monandrous reproduction syndrome for the species. Another phenomenon observed in the species was a change in coloration due to body temperature in individuals, in which bright coloration becomes grayish in cold weather. This study provides fundamental data for future monitoring and conservation efforts, highlighting the species’ vulnerability to environmental changes and the need for specific conservation strategies.

Persons Living With Primary Immunodeficiency Act as Citizen Scientists and Launch Prospective Cohort Body Temperature Study.

BackgroundAlthough fever is considered a sign of infection, many individuals with primary immunodeficiency (PI) anecdotally report a lower-than-normal average body temperature on online forums sponsored by the Immune Deficiency Foundation (IDF). There is limited knowledge about the average body temperature and fever response in PI.ObjectiveThis study aims to compare median body temperatures between adults with and without PI diagnoses living in the same household and to engage individuals living with PI throughout the research process.MethodsPatients with PI designed and launched a prospective cohort comparison study as citizen scientists. A multidisciplinary team designed and implemented a patient-informed study with continuous patient-driven input. Median body temperatures were compared between the 2 cohorts using the Mann-Whitney test with Bonferroni correction. The IDF conducted a post-study patient experience survey.ResultsData from 254 households were analyzed (254/350, 72.6% participation rate). The PI population was predominantly female (218/254, 85.8%), White (248/254, 97.6%), and with a median age of 49 years. The non-PI population was largely male (170/254, 66.9%), White (236/254, 92.9%), and with a median age of 53 years. Common variable immunodeficiency was the most common PI diagnosis (190/254, 74.8%). Of the 254 individuals with PI, 123 (48.4%) reported a lower-than-normal nonsick body temperature, whereas 108 (42.5%) reported a normal (between 97°F and 99°F) nonsick body temperature. Among individuals with PI, when infected, 67.7% (172/254) reported the absence of fever, whereas 19.7% (50/254) reported a normal fever response. The recorded median body temperature was minimally but statistically significantly higher for patients with PI in the morning. Although 22.4% (57/254) of patients with PI self-reported illness, a fever of 100.4°F or higher was uncommon; 77.2% (196/254) had a normal temperature (between 97°F and 99°F), and 16.2% (41/254) had a lower-than-normal temperature (between 95.0°F and 96.9°F) when sick. For these sick patients with PI, the median body temperature was minimally but statistically significantly higher for patients in the morning and early evening. Overall, 90.9% (231/254) of participants would be very likely to participate in future IDF studies, although 94.1% (239/254) participants had never taken part in previous studies.ConclusionsTo our knowledge, this is the first study to evaluate average body temperature in individuals with PI. Although there were small statistically significant differences in body temperatures between PI and non-PI subjects, the clinical significance is unclear and should be interpreted with caution, given the methodological issues associated with our small convenience sample and study design. As PIs are heterogeneous, more research is needed about how the fever response differs among diverse PIs compared with healthy controls. This study highlights that individuals with PI are knowledgeable about their health and can offer unique insights and direction to researchers and clinicians.

Advanced Air Conditioning using Thermal Imaging and Occupancy Detection

The body temperature of humans differs from one person to another, and therefore it becomes difficult to set the optimal temperature of the room. The total room temperature depends on the number of persons present and their body temperatures. The occupancy detection of a room and determining its temperature are dependent on each other. In this paper, A novel approach for determining the room temperature along with occupancy detection and correspondingly giving the input to air-conditioner is discussed. This paper would also provide a solution to determine the number of persons that can leave a room to ensure less congregation of corridors. For getting a definitive body temperature of individuals, we will be using the MLX90640 module, which produces a thermal image and makes it possible for the extraction of temperature data. PIR sensors are used for occupancy detection purposes and an ultrasonic sensor for the congregation problem. These are both implemented using Arduino IDE, whereas raspberry pi handles the temperature data. Finally, using the mean temperature data, the temperature of the air conditioner will be set.

The highest kingdom of Anolis: Thermal biology of the Andean lizard Anolis heterodermus (Squamata: Dactyloidae) over an elevational gradient in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia

Vertebrate ectotherms may deal with changes of environmental temperatures by behavioral and/or physiological mechanisms. Reptiles inhabiting tropical highlands face extreme fluctuating daily temperatures, and extreme values and intervals of fluctuations vary with altitude. Anolis heterodermus occurs between 1800m to 3750m elevation in the tropical Andes, and is the Anolis species found at the highest altitude known. We evaluated which strategies populations from elevations of 2200m, 2650m and 3400m use to cope with environmental temperatures. We measured body, preferred, critical maximum and minimum temperatures, and sprint speed at different body temperatures of individuals, as well as operative temperatures. Anolis heterodermus exhibits behavioral adjustments in response to changes in environmental temperatures across altitudes. Likewise, physiological traits exhibit intrapopulation variations, but they are similar among populations, tended to the "static" side of the evolution of thermal traits spectrum. The thermoregulatory behavioral strategy in this species is extremely plastic, and lizards adjust even to fluctuating environmental conditions from day to day. Unlike other Anolis species, at low thermal quality of the habitat, lizards are thermoconformers, particularly at the highest altitudes, where cloudy days can intensify this strategy even more. Our study reveals that the pattern of strategies for dealing with thermal ambient variations and their relation to extinction risks in the tropics that are caused by global warming is perhaps more complex for lizards than previously thought.

The Effect of a 300 mBar Increase in Barometric Pressure on Digital Microcirculation in Healthy Subjects Exposed to High Altitude: Is the Use of a Portable Hyperbaric Chamber to Treat Frostbite and/or Hypothermia in the Field Indicated? (Flow_Pulse Study).

Hypothermia and frostbite occur when there is a significant decrease in central and peripheral body temperature in individuals exposed to cold windy conditions, often at high altitude or in a mountain environment. Portable hyperbaric chambers increase the barometric pressure and thereby the partial pressure of oxygen inside the chamber, and their use is a well-known treatment for altitude illness. This study aims to show that a portable hyperbaric chamber could also be used to treat hypothermia and frostbite in the field, when rescue or descent is impossible or delayed. During a European research program (SOS-MAM, Flow Pulse study) measurements were taken from 27 healthy nonacclimatized voluntary subjects (21 men, 6 women, mean age 41 ± 17) at an altitude of 3800 m (Chamonix Mountain Lab, Aiguille du Midi, France) right before and immediately after spending 1 hour in a portable hyperbaric chamber at 300 mbar. We measured digital cutaneous temperature (Tcut), digital cutaneous blood flow (Fcut), digital tissue oxygenation (TcPO2), blood oxygen saturation (SpO2), heart rate, and core temperature. Air temperature inside the chamber (Tchamb) was measured throughout the whole session. We observed significant increases in Tchamb: 9.3°C compared with the outside temperature, Tcut: +7.5°C (±6.2°C 71%), Fcut: +58PU (±89) (+379%), TcPO2: +18 mmHg (±11.9) (304%), and SpO2: 13%. This study shows that a portable hyperbaric chamber can be used to treat frostbite and/or hypothermia in the field at altitude when descent or rescue is impossible or even simply delayed.

Effective Cooling Strategies to Reduce Body Temperature in Individuals with Spinal Cord Injury*

Effective Cooling Strategies to Reduce Body Temperature in Individuals with Spinal Cord Injury*

Differences in serum IL-6 response after 1 °C rise in core body temperature in individuals with spinal cord injury and cervical spinal cord injury during local heat stress

Objectives: Passive rise in core body temperature achieved by head-out hot water immersion (HHWI) results in acute increases in serum interleukin (IL)-6 but no change in plasma adrenaline in patients with cervical spinal cord injury (CSCI). The purpose of the present study was to determine the mechanism of heat stress-induced increase in serum IL-6.Setting: A cross-sectional study.Methods: The study subjects were nine with CSCI, ten with thoracic and lumbar spinal cord injury (TLSCI) and eight able-bodied (AB) subjects. Time since injury was 16.1 ± 3.4 years in TLSCI and 16.4 ± 4.1 years in CSCI. Subjects were subjected to lower-body heat stress (LBH) by wearing a hot water-perfused suit until 1 °C increase in core temperature. The levels of serum IL-6, plasma adrenaline, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, C-reactive protein (CRP), and counts of blood cells were measured at normothermia and after LBH.Results: Serum IL-6 concentrations increased significantly immediately after LBH in all the three groups. ΔIL-6% was lower in CSCI subjects compared with AB subjects. Plasma adrenaline concentrations significantly increased after LBH in AB and TLSCI subjects, but did not change throughout the study in CSCI subjects. Cardiac output and heart rate increased at the end of LBH in all three groups.Conclusions: Under a similar increase in core temperature, ΔIL-6% was lower in the CSCI group compared with the AB group. These findings suggest that the observed rise in IL-6 during hyperthermia is mediated, at least in part, by plasma adrenaline.

To warm on the rocks, to cool in the wind: Thermal relations of a small-sized lizard from a mountain environment

Rising temperatures accompanying global climate change are expected to affect mountain lizards. Therefore, basic information on how these ectotherms deal with their thermal environment is important for further management. We conducted a field study to evaluate how body temperature of the small-sized mountain lizard Eurolophosaurus nanuzae relates to the thermal environment. After capture, the body temperature of the lizards was measured immediately, quickly followed by the substrate and air temperatures, wind intensity, and solar radiation at the capture locations. Linear relationships showed that the body temperature of individuals was positively related to rocky substrate temperatures but negatively related to wind speed. However, air temperature and solar radiation were unrelated to body temperature. Although the substrate is an important heat source for E. nanuzae, in an open environment it can reach temperatures up to 10 °C above the maximum body temperatures of lizards, and can thus be a low-quality thermal substrate. However, individuals seemed to use wind as a cooling source to counterbalance the risks of overheating from high substrate temperatures. As the montane environment that E. nanuzae inhabits seems to have hotter temperatures than those preferred by the species, lizards should benefit from the cooling winds to keep their body temperature at appropriate levels. Different to previous studies that evaluated wind effects on body temperatures of lizards, our results showed that winds seemed to promote thermoregulation for E. nanuzae.

Thermal Physiology and Developmental Plasticity of Pigmentation in the Harlequin Bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae).

Traits that promote the maintenance of body temperatures within an optimal range provide advantages to ectothermic species. Pigmentation plasticity is found in many insects and enhances thermoregulatory potential as increased melanization can result in greater heat retention. The thermal melanism hypothesis predicts that species with developmental plasticity will have darker pigmentation in colder environments, which can be an important adaptation for temperate species experiencing seasonal variation in climate. The harlequin bug (Murgantia histrionica, Hemiptera: Pentatomidae, Hahn 1834) is a widespread invasive crop pest with variable patterning where developmental plasticity in melanization could affect performance. To investigate the impact of temperature and photoperiod on melanization and size, nymphs were reared under two temperatures and two photoperiods simulating summer and fall seasons. The size and degree of melanization of adults were quantified using digital imagery. To assess the effect of coloration on the amount of heat absorption, we monitored the temperature of adults in a heating experiment. Overall, our results supported the thermal melanism hypothesis and temperature had a comparatively larger effect on coloration and size than photoperiod. When heated, the body temperature of individuals with darker pigmentation increased more relative to the ambient air temperature than individuals with lighter pigmentation. These results suggest that colder temperatures experienced late in the season can induce developmental plasticity for a phenotype that improves thermoregulation in this species. Our work highlights environmental signals and consequences for individual performance due to thermal melanism in a common invasive species, where capacity to respond to changing environments is likely contributing to its spread.

Evaluation of body temperature inindividuals with stroke.

A stroke can cause alterations in thermal sensitivity. to verify the conditions of body temperature in hemiplegic patients after stroke as compared to healthy individuals, as well as establish relations between thermal sensitivity and gender, age, Body Mass Index (BMI), plegic side, time after stroke, reports of thermal alterations and the motricity of patients with stroke sequelae. This cross-sectional study included 100 patients (55.6±13 years) with ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke sequelae with unilateral hemiparesis and thirty healthy subjects (55±12.9 years). Individuals with nervous peripheral lesions, diabetes, peripheral vascular diseases or tumors were not included in this study. The volunteers underwent axillary temperature evaluations with the use of acutaneous thermometer and evaluations of cutaneous temperature of hands and feet as measured by infrared thermography captured by an infrared sensor (ThermaCAMTM SC 500-FLIR Systems). The mean temperature (°C) was analyzed with the SigmaStat 3.5 statistical package. The results have shown that healthy individuals have similar temperatures on either side of the body. The hemiplegic subjects presented alower temperature on the plegic side and compared to the healthy subjects, both feet of the hemiparetic individuals were colder. The results have also shown that age, body mass index, and the time after stroke have no influence on the alterations in temperature. Regarding the paretic side, individuals with hemiplegia on the right side (right foot) had alower temperature than those affected on the left side. Motricity was not related to any difference in temperature between the limbs and the reports of temperature differences had no relation with the actual differences found in the study. Healthy individuals have temperature symmetry between between sides of the body, while individuals with stroke sequelae present lower temperature in the paretic side, especially on their feet.

Facing the Heat: Thermoregulation and Behaviour of Lowland Species of a Cold-Dwelling Butterfly Genus, Erebia.

Understanding the potential of animals to immediately respond to changing temperatures is imperative for predicting the effects of climate change on biodiversity. Ectothermic animals, such as insects, use behavioural thermoregulation to keep their body temperature within suitable limits. It may be particularly important at warm margins of species occurrence, where populations are sensitive to increasing air temperatures. In the field, we studied thermal requirements and behavioural thermoregulation in low-altitude populations of the Satyrinae butterflies Erebia aethiops, E. euryale and E. medusa. We compared the relationship of individual body temperature with air and microhabitat temperatures for the low-altitude Erebia species to our data on seven mountain species, including a high-altitude population of E. euryale, studied in the Alps. We found that the grassland butterfly E. medusa was well adapted to the warm lowland climate and it was active under the highest air temperatures and kept the highest body temperature of all species. Contrarily, the woodland species, E. aethiops and a low-altitude population of E. euryale, kept lower body temperatures and did not search for warm microclimates as much as other species. Furthermore, temperature-dependence of daily activities also differed between the three low-altitude and the mountain species. Lastly, the different responses to ambient temperature between the low- and high-altitude populations of E. euryale suggest possible local adaptations to different climates. We highlight the importance of habitat heterogeneity for long-term species survival, because it is expected to buffer climate change consequences by providing a variety of microclimates, which can be actively explored by adults. Alpine species can take advantage of warm microclimates, while low-altitude grassland species may retreat to colder microhabitats to escape heat, if needed. However, we conclude that lowland populations of woodland species may be more severely threatened by climate warming because of the unavailability of relatively colder microclimates.

Malaria case detection using rapid diagnostic test at the community level in Ghana: consumer perception and practitioners' experiences.

BackgroundGhana has scaled-up malaria control strategies over the past decade. Much as malaria morbidity and mortality seem to have declined with these efforts, there appears to be increased consumption of artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT). This study explored the perception and experiences of community members and medicines outlet practitioners on malaria case detection using rapid diagnostic test (RDTs) to guide malaria therapy.MethodsThis was a cross-sectional study using both quantitative and qualitative approaches for data. In-depth interviews with structured questionnaires were conducted among 197 practitioners randomly selected from community pharmacies and over-the-counter medicine sellers shops within two metropolis (Kumasi and Obuasi) in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. Two focus group discussions were also held in the two communities among female adult caregivers.ResultsMedicine outlet practitioners and community members often used raised body temperature of individuals as an index for malaria case detection. The raised body temperature was presumptively determined by touching the forehead with hands. Seventy percent of the practitioners’ perceived malaria RDTs are used in hospitals and clinics but not in retail medicines outlets. Many of the practitioners and community members agreed to the need for using RDT for malaria case detection at medicine outlets. However, about 30 % of the practitioners (n = 59) and some community members (n = 6) held the view that RDT negative results does not mean no malaria illness and would use ACT.ConclusionsThough malaria RDT use in medicines outlets was largely uncommon, both community members and medicine outlet practitioners welcomed its use. Public education is however needed to improve malaria case detection using RDTs at the community level, to inform appropriate use of ACT.

Core Body Temperature Changes During Surgery and Nursing Management

The fact that surgical procedures and anaesthesia implementation affect thermoregulation, decrease heat production and increase heat loss cause hypothermia in the individual. This situation may create serious physiological problems both during and after the operation especially in risky patients. Surgical operation is a process threatening that body temperature of individual are maintained within required ranges due to the environment it is performed and requiring anesthesia application. Both general and local anesthesia’s suppress afferent and efferent control of thermoregulation. Additionally, surgery environment and exposure to surgical operation generally cause heat loss. Heat loss is a common during surgery. This is because the surgical environment transfers heat from the patient. Anesthesia decreases both heat production and thermoregulation capabilities of patients. Anesthesia also hardens the monitorization of body temperature. Hypothermia may cause complications such as fever, trembling, coldness and paleness in the skin, absent-mindedness, slowing in the metabolic speed, slowing in mental functions, bradycardia and rhythm disturbances, respiration slowing, coma and death. It is important for nurses to appreciate the physiological effects of hypothermia, which can cause complications in surgical patients in these settings. Furthermore accurate and careful monitoring of haemodynamic parameters. In this process the nurse may help maintain the individual’s body temperature by taking protective precautions through various methods before, during and after the operation and especially may protect the patient from various complications that may occur as a result of hypothermia.

A protocol for analysing thermal stress in insects using infrared thermography

The study of insect responses to thermal stress has involved a variety of protocols and methodologies that hamper the ability to compare results between studies. For that reason, the development of a protocol to standardize thermal assays is necessary. In this sense, infrared thermography solves some of the problems allowing us to take continuous temperature measurements without handling the individuals, an important fact in cold-blooded organisms like insects. Here, we present a working protocol based on infrared thermography to estimate both cold and heat thermal stress in insects. We analyse both the change in the body temperature of individuals and their behavioural response. In addition, we used partial least squares regression for the statistical analysis of our data, a technique that solves the problem of having a large number of variables and few individuals, allowing us to work with rare or endemic species. To test our protocol, we chose two species of congeneric, narrowly distributed dung beetles that are endemic to the southeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula. With our protocol we have obtained five variables in the response to cold and twelve in the response to heat. With this methodology we discriminate between the two flightless species of Jekelius through their thermal response. In response to cold, Jekelius hernandezi showed a higher rate of cooling and reached higher temperatures of stupor and haemolymph freezing than Jekelius punctatolineatus. Both species displayed similar thermoregulation ranges before reaching lethal body temperature with heat stress. Overall, we have demonstrated that infrared thermography is a suitable method to assess insect thermal responses with a high degree of sensitivity, allowing for the discrimination between closely related species.

Ecología térmica de la rana de hojarasca de Stejnegers Craugastor stejnegerianus (Anura: Craugastoridae) en el bosque seco tropical del Parque Nacional Guanacaste, Costa Rica

Introduction : In a climate changing world it is indispensable to know the behavioral and physiological responses of amphibians to environmental temperature variation. Even so, thermal ecology is unknown for many species, including Craugastor stejnegerianus . Therefore, it is important to describe the patterns and mechanisms that in uence body temperature and if these obey to the environmental temperature or to thermoregulation actions. Objective : The aim of this paper is to describe the relationship between environmental and substrate temperatures, as well as the behavior and substrate use with the body temperature of C. stejnegerianus . Methodology : The body temperature of individuals of C. stejnegerianus was monitored 13.4 h, along with measures of environmental temperature, substrate use and behavior observations. Results : the results obtained were that the body temperature is related to the substrate temperature but it does not depend on the variations of environmental temperature nor behavior or substrate use. Conclusion : Based in our ndings we propose that the body temperature variation of this frog is circumstantial and there is not behavior of thermoregulation.

Thermal ecology of five remaining populations of an endangered lizard (Liolaemus lutzae) in different restinga habitats in Brazil

We studied the thermal ecology of five populations (Marambaia, Barra de Marica, Praia Grande, Praia do Foguete and Praia do Pero) of the endemic and endangered liolaemid lizard Liolaemus lutzae along its geographic range in coastal Rio de Janeiro state. Our aims were to analyze to what extent populations differ in mean body temperature and to evaluate the effect of some local environmental factors (such as air and substrate temperatures in the microhabitat and wind intensity) on lizard body temperature. Lizards were manually collected during its period of activity (7 to 18 h) from late February to early April 2012 (rainy season), always under similar weather conditions (sunny days). The body and environmental temperatures as well as wind intensity were taken immediately after capture at the same point where each lizard was initially sighted. The mean body temperature of L. lutzae in activity (all populations pooled) was 33.2 ± 2.5 °C (range = 22.5–40.2; N = 242) and varied from 31.5 ± 2.6 °C (range = 25.4–36.2; N = 34) to 34.0 ± 2.2 °C (range = 29.1–39.2; N = 67), depending of the locality. However, after removing the effect of the local thermal environment no interpopulational differences remained, suggesting a relative conservativeness in body temperature for the species. Temperatures of air and substrate interact to influence body temperature of individuals locally. Air temperature decreased with the increase of wind intensity, suggesting an indirect effect of wind in lizard body temperatures. Sex or body size did not affect lizard body temperature. Mean and maximum air temperatures in Rio de Janeiro municipality show an increase since 1930’s.

Social forces can impact the circadian clocks of cohabiting hamsters

A number of field and laboratory studies have shown that the social environment influences daily rhythms in numerous species. However, underlying mechanisms, including the circadian system's role, are not known. Obstacles to this research have been the inability to track and objectively analyse rhythms of individual animals housed together. Here, we employed temperature dataloggers to track individual body temperature rhythms of pairs of cohabiting male Syrian hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus) in constant darkness and applied a continuous wavelet transform to determine the phase of rhythm onset before, during, and after cohabitation. Cohabitation altered the predicted trajectory of rhythm onsets in 34% of individuals, representing 58% of pairs, compared to 12% of hamsters single-housed as 'virtual pair' controls. Deviation from the predicted trajectory was by a change in circadian period (τ), which tended to be asymmetric-affecting one individual of the pair in nine of 11 affected pairs-with hints that dominance might play a role. These data implicate a change in the speed of the circadian clock as one mechanism whereby social factors can alter daily rhythms. Miniature dataloggers coupled with wavelet analyses should provide powerful tools for future studies investigating the principles and mechanisms mediating social influences on daily timing.

Irrigating methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus‐colonised and ‐infected chronic wounds – why use tap water?

International Wound JournalVolume 12, Issue 5 p. 605-605 LETTER TO THE EDITOROpen Access Irrigating methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus-colonised and -infected chronic wounds – why use tap water? Basavraj S Nagoba PhD, Corresponding Author Basavraj S Nagoba PhD Department of Microbiology MIMSR Medical College Latur, Indiadr_bsnagoba@yahoo.com; bsnagoba@gmail.comSearch for more papers by this authorSohan P Selkar MPhT, Sohan P Selkar MPhT Department of Physiotherapy MIP College of Physiotherapy Latur, IndiaSearch for more papers by this authorJitendra B Mule MSc, Jitendra B Mule MSc Sunrich Aqua (Packaged Drinking Water Plant) Maharashtra Industrial Development Corporation Latur, IndiaSearch for more papers by this author Basavraj S Nagoba PhD, Corresponding Author Basavraj S Nagoba PhD Department of Microbiology MIMSR Medical College Latur, Indiadr_bsnagoba@yahoo.com; bsnagoba@gmail.comSearch for more papers by this authorSohan P Selkar MPhT, Sohan P Selkar MPhT Department of Physiotherapy MIP College of Physiotherapy Latur, IndiaSearch for more papers by this authorJitendra B Mule MSc, Jitendra B Mule MSc Sunrich Aqua (Packaged Drinking Water Plant) Maharashtra Industrial Development Corporation Latur, IndiaSearch for more papers by this author First published: 19 September 2013 https://doi.org/10.1111/iwj.12150Citations: 2AboutSectionsPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Dear Editors, We read with great interest a letter entitled, ‘Irrigating methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus-colonised and -infected chronic wounds with tap water’, by Li et al. 1. In this study, the use of tap water, which was 2°C higher than individual body temperature, has been suggested to irrigate chronic wounds infected with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) for 5 minutes, twice a day. A significant improvement in the condition of the chronic wound after 2 weeks of irrigation with tap water has been reported, showing two impressive clinical photographs before and after warm tap water irrigation. It is not clear whether tap water irrigation was the only treatment modality used for the treatment of wound or some other local or systemic antibacterial agent was also used to eliminate MRSA from the wound site. We do agree that daily wound irrigation with requisite pressure can decontaminate wound and eliminate bacterial colonies, preventing subsequent liberation of multiple toxins that may incite an ongoing inflammatory response that retards the process of wound healing; however, complete elimination of most noxious and most difficult bacteria such as MRSA from chronic wound site by using tap water irrigation alone appears to be difficult. Another important issue is why use tap water? Although use of tap water is a very economical option because of its wide availability, it is comparatively better than normal saline in reducing infection rates 2 and is also superior to antibacterial solutions in removing debris and bacteria present at wound site, thereby creating a better healing environment, when an irrigation pressure of greater than 8 psi is used 3. It is risky to use tap water because it may contain potentially pathogenic bacterial flora that may lead to further addition of infectious material to the already infected wound. Hence, tap water that is 2°C higher than individual body temperature is not always a better option for wound irrigation. Instead of tap water, bacteria-free boiled water, distilled water or packed mineral water would be a better option for irrigation of chronic wounds. Hence, irrigation with boiled water, distilled water or packed mineral water that has a pressure of about 45 psi would be a superior alternative to detach bacteria and debris from the wound, thus serving the purpose of irrigation and simultaneously not adding any potentially pathogenic microbial flora to the wound. Basavraj S Nagoba, PhD1, Sohan P Selkar, MPhT2 & Jitendra B Mule, MSc3 1Department of Microbiology MIMSR Medical College Latur, India dr_bsnagoba@yahoo.com; bsnagoba@gmail.com 2Department of Physiotherapy MIP College of Physiotherapy Latur, India 3Sunrich Aqua (Packaged Drinking Water Plant) Maharashtra Industrial Development Corporation Latur, India References 1Li TS, Choong MY, Wu SF, Chen KJ. Irrigating methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus—colonized and infected chronic wounds. Int Wound J 2013; 10: 359. Wiley Online LibraryPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 2Bansal BC, Wiebe RA, Perkins SD, Abramo TJ. Tap water for irrigation of lacerations. Am J Emerg Med 2002; 20: 469– 72. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 3Stone S, Carter W. Wound preparation. In: JE Tintinalli, G Kelen, J Stapczynski, editors. Emergency medicine: a comprehensive study guide, 5th edn. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000: 284– 7. Google Scholar Citing Literature Volume12, Issue5October 2015Pages 605-605 ReferencesRelatedInformation

Assessment of body temperature measurement options

Assessment of body temperature is important for decisions in nursing care, medical diagnosis, treatment and the need of laboratory tests. The definition of normal body temperature as 37°C was established in the middle of the 19th century. Since then the technical design and the accuracy of thermometers has been much improved. Knowledge of physical influence on the individual body temperature, such as thermoregulation and hormones, are still not taken into consideration in body temperature assessment. It is time for a change; the unadjusted mode should be used, without adjusting to another site and the same site of measurement should be used as far as possible. Peripheral sites, such as the axillary and the forehead site, are not recommended as an assessment of core body temperature in adults. Frail elderly individuals might have a low normal body temperature and therefore be at risk of being assessed as non-febrile. As the ear site is close to the hypothalamus and quickly responds to changes in the set point temperature, it is a preferable and recommendable site for measurement of body temperature.