Abstract As grazing activities continue to expand, it is essential to understand how wild carnivores coexist with livestock disturbance in human‐dominated landscapes. Such information remains limited for the Qinghai‐Tibet Plateau, where snow leopards (Panthera uncia), grey wolves (Canis lupus), and their primary wild prey, the ungulate bharal (Pseudois nayaur), share habitat with livestock. We investigated their spatial co‐occurrence patterns using camera‐trapping datasets from the Qomolangma National Nature Reserve (QNNR) in the Central Himalaya and a multi‐species occupancy framework. Our results revealed widespread livestock presence across both sampling areas, including strictly protected zones. We found that snow leopards exhibited positive co‐occurrence with bharal, while wolves showed a positive spatial association with livestock. The occupancy patterns were also markedly driven by topographic factors: although snow leopards, bharal, and livestock tended to occur at lower elevations, snow leopards and bharal were more likely to occupy steeper areas, whereas livestock and wolves favored flatter terrain. These findings suggest that despite extensive livestock presence, snow leopards maintained a strong spatial association with their primary wild prey in steep terrain. In contrast, wolves' preference for flatter areas coincided with livestock distribution, possibly exacerbating the risk of livestock depredation and subsequent human–wildlife conflicts. This study demonstrates distinct habitat use patterns among wild carnivores, ungulates, and livestock in the Himalaya. These patterns reveal potential hotspots of livestock depredation in the QNNR and underscore grazing restriction as a key conservation strategy for fostering human–carnivore coexistence in the Qinghai‐Tibet Plateau.

ABSTRACTRobust population surveys and monitoring of ungulates in mountainous areas are hindered by complex terrain and limited access to remote regions. Distance sampling, a widely used method for surveying ungulates in non‐mountainous habitats, faces challenges in such environments due to violations of key assumptions. In this study, we examine the assumptions underlying distance sampling and explore how they can be addressed in mountainous terrain. We then applied distance sampling to estimate the abundance of bharal (Pseudois nayaur) on the Tibetan Plateau and compared the results with estimates from the double‐observer survey method, which is commonly used for mountain ungulates. Both methods produced highly comparable estimates—2189 from distance sampling and 2038 from the double‐observer survey—approximately twice as high as the total count (963). Distance sampling yielded a wider confidence interval (95% CI: 1207–3972) than the double‐observer survey (95% CI: 1405–2670). We recommend using distance sampling when human resources are limited or when the closed population assumption is difficult to meet. Otherwise, the double‐observer method is preferable due to its narrower confidence intervals and greater ability to detect population changes.

Understanding the genetic structure of wild ungulate populations is essential for informed conservation planning, particularly in ecologically sensitive and topographically complex landscapes such as the Himalayas. We investigated the genetic variation in Bharal (Pseudois nayaur) populations from the western (WH) and eastern Himalayas (EH) using eight microsatellite loci. Our analysis revealed significant genetic divergence between WH and EH populations, with a Nei's genetic distance of 0.91 and a pairwise FST value of 0.14, indicating their delineation as distinct lineages. WH populations showed greater genetic affinity with the Himalayan Bharal (P. n. nayaur). In contrast, EH populations were closely related to the Chinese Bharal (P. n. szechuanensis) of the Tibetan Plateau. Hence, WH and EH Bharal represent distinct Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) and should be managed as separate Management Units (MUs). It further highlighted the need for region-specific conservation strategies to safeguard the genetic integrity and ecological resilience of Bharal populations across the Indian Himalayan Region.

ABSTRACTBlue sheep are crucial to the Himalayan high‐altitude ecosystems, but their habitat preferences are not well understood. Hence, this study investigated its pre‐monsoon habitat preference and spatial overlap with livestock in Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve, Nepal. Altogether, 126 plots were laid to sample the signs of blue sheep, vegetation, and habitat parameters. The species was found at elevations of 3651–4348 m, with a preference for sub‐alpine and alpine grasslands (3800–4200 meters) on south‐facing slopes of 10°–30°, within 300 m of water bodies. It favored areas with crown coverage of < 25% and ground coverage of > 50%. Preferred vegetation included shrubs like Rhododendron lepidotum and grasses from Cyperaceae, such as Kobresia and Carex species. There was a significant habitat overlap between blue sheep and livestock, along with the major threats including grazing, fire, poaching, snaring, and human interference. Management plans should address these issues to sustain the species.

Understanding the activity patterns of a species is essential for developing sound conservation and management plans. In this study, we used a camera-trapping technique to determine the activity patterns of bharal (Pseudois nayaur) in a marginal population in Wolong National Nature Reserve, Sichuan, China. Our results showed that these animals preferred to be active in the daytime from 08:00 to 20:00, with an activity peak between 10:00 and 14:00. In addition, we found that the species had a seasonal activity pattern with higher activity frequency in summer than in winter and that bharal were most active in a temperature range of 3–11 °C and at night with a waxing crescent moon, implying that the activity rhythm of the species is an adaptation to a subtropical high-altitude alpine area with vertical zonation in temperature. The pattern of movement and activity was also correlated with the moon phase.

ABSTRACTAlpine ungulates exemplify climate vulnerability through their spatiotemporal adaptation strategies, yet integrated analyses of these dimensions remain scarce. Here, we investigated how bharal (Pseudois nayaur) in Giant Panda National Park adjusts both time‐activity budgets and spatial distributions under extreme seasonal conditions. We deployed a network of 50 infrared cameras along altitudinal transects (3300–4500 m) during summer and winter. We extracted the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) from satellite imagery for each camera site and calculated the Relative Abundance Index (RAI) to quantify activity intensity and assess its seasonal variation. Our results revealed two key adaptations. (i) Temporal compression: Activity intensity in winter was reduced by 66% compared to summer (RAI: 0.85 ± 0.04 vs. 0.29 ± 0.21; p < 0.01) and exhibited a weaker diurnal‐nocturnal contrast (p < 0.05). (ii) Spatial contraction: The bharal's altitudinal range narrowed by 73% from summer (3685–4248 m) to winter (3859–4012 m), accompanied by a significant decrease in NDVI (summer: 0.70 ± 0.14 vs. winter: 0.14 ± 0.06; p < 0.05). These findings reveal a dual‐phase adaptation in bharal: expanding activity and range in resource‐rich summers and contracting both in winter to conserve energy. By integrating infrared camera data with satellite‐derived NDVI, our approach highlights how alpine ungulates respond to seasonal challenges and provides a foundation for predicting climate‐driven shifts in high‐elevation ecosystems.

Mitochondrial genome characterization and phylogenetic position of a putative taeniid tapeworm (Taenia sp. QH-2023) isolated from Pseudois nayaur.

The gut microbiota plays a critical role in plant digestion, nutrient absorption, and ecological adaptation in herbivores. However, how gut microbiota and diet jointly influence ecological niche differentiation in sympatric species remains unclear. Here, we use metagenomic sequencing and plant trnL (UAA) fragment sequencing to examine the gut microbiota and dietary composition of sympatric Tibetan argali (Ovis ammon hodgsoni) and blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) in the Kunlun Mountains of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Despite inhabiting similar environments, the two species harbor distinct microbial compositions and functional profiles. Interestingly, higher dietary diversity does not correspond to higher microbial diversity. Tibetan argali, despite having a simpler diet, possesses a more diverse and flexible gut microbiome. In contrast, blue sheep show broader dietary preferences and stronger microbial metabolic adaptation to glycan biosynthesis and metabolism. These findings reveal significant associations between gut microbiota composition, function, and diet, supporting a microbial contribution to trophic niche differentiation. Our results highlight distinct microbial-dietary strategies in sympatric herbivores and underscore the role of the gut microbiome in ecological adaptation and species coexistence.

The Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP) provides a home to diverse flora and fauna, and its ecosystems are unique worldwide. The study focused on the bharal, an endemic species found in the QTP and adjacent regions. We applied viral metagenomics technology to extract samples from the feces of 10 wild bharal. Viral nucleic acids were isolated, enriched, and sequenced from these samples, revealing the presence of a novel strain of Astroviridae virus. Phylogenetic analysis and sequence comparison identified this virus as part of the Mamastro-virus, forming a cluster with other Mamastrovirus species. Recombination analysis confirmed a multiple recombination event, suggesting that the new strain may be a potential recombinant. Additionally, nearly complete genome sequences of viruses belonging to the family Circoviridae were characterized, and a phylogenetic tree was constructed based on genotyping and predicted amino acid sequence analysis of the rep protein. Overall, this study helps us better understand the viral communities in the gut microbiome of the rare bharal. Moreover, the new recombinant discovered in this study will provide insights into the origin, genetic diversity, and evolution of bharal from the QTP and play a crucial role in future research on its presence in the intestinal ecology of sheep.

Blue Sheep is one of the common ungulates of the Himalaya and trans-Himalaya. To infer the population of this species, field surveys were undertaken during 2014-15 and 2015-16 in Ladakh, Kinnaur and Lahaul areas. Three extensive surveys were also undertaken in Spiti Valley from 2012 to 2014. Based on information collected on the distribution and population estimates of Blue Sheep in the distribution ranges in three states, i.e., Himachal Pradesh, Ladakh and Uttarakhand, the total population is about 5236-6731 individuals. Analysis of the data revealed that about 34.15% of individuals were males, 42.07% were females, and 23.78% were sub-adults. This study revealed that the species is facing some conservation threats, mostly emerging due to unorganised developmental activities such as settlements, illegal encroachment of land and fencing, hunting, diseases, tourist influx, competition with livestock and threats posed by free-ranging dogs.

The construction of gut microbial communities in wildlife is influenced by both environmental factors and host genetic background. However, the mechanisms through which these factors interact to shape microbial communities remain poorly understood. In this study, we systematically sampled fecal specimens from male and female wild blue sheep across different seasons in Helan Mountain Nature Reserve and analyzed them using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The objective was to investigate seasonal changes and interactions between sex and season on the gut microbial communities of blue sheep. Our results revealed that Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes were the dominant phyla across all groups, and the ten most abundant genera remain stable across both sexes and seasons. Alpha diversity (Chao1, two-way ANOVA, p = 0.001) and Beta diversity (PCoA, Anosim, R = 0.5410, p = 0.001) analyses further confirmed that seasonal and sex-specific interactions significantly shape the microbial community structure. Notably, the gut microbiomes of male and female blue sheep exhibited distinct response patterns to seasonal changes. LEfSe analysis (LDA > 3) identified 20 microbial taxa with significant seasonal differences, some of which showed sex-specific seasonal variation. These findings highlight the critical role of host sex in modulating the adaptation of gut microbial communities to seasonal environmental stresses. This study provides new insights into the ecological and evolutionary mechanisms of wildlife gut microbiomes and offers a scientific basis for sex-based wildlife conservation strategies.

ABSTRACTClimate change is significantly altering the distribution of large carnivores and their primary prey species, with particular emphasis on the changing prey distribution in high‐altitude regions. The Qinghai‐Tibet Plateau, known for its rich biodiversity, is highly sensitive to climate change, affecting the habitats of snow leopards (Panthera uncia) and blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur). Our study identified blue sheep as the primary prey of snow leopards through metagenomic analysis and used bioclimatic data and Land Use/Cover Change (LUCC) information to model habitat suitability under three climate scenarios (RCP 2.6, RCP 4.5, and RCP 8.5). Projections showed that under RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5, snow leopard habitats will decrease by 13.0% and 23.4%, while blue sheep habitats will decrease by 38.3% and 49.7%, respectively. These habitats are expected to shift to higher altitudes, with snow leopards experiencing a more significant shift. Based on these findings, we recommend adjusting protected area boundaries for S1 (Ideal distribution range), establishing ecological corridors for S2 (stepping stone), and implementing targeted measures to mitigate human‐wildlife conflicts in S3 (potential conflict area). To protect these species, international efforts to reduce carbon emissions, cross‐administrative cooperation, and community‐based conservation strategies are essential.

ABSTRACTThe expansion of linear infrastructure presents a significant threat to biodiversity, emphasizing the urgent need for regional studies on spatial variations and comprehensive multispecies research. This study surveyed and monitored wildlife passages across eight nature reserves in Xinjiang, evaluating their construction status, utilization patterns, and key factors influencing utilization rates, as well as providing optimization recommendations. The findings revealed that dedicated wildlife passages were scarce, especially in smaller reserves, which primarily relied on small bridges and culverts originally designed for water flow. Enhancing the construction of passages in these areas is strongly recommended. A total of 32 wildlife species were recorded, comprising 13 bird species and 19 mammal species. Ungulates, including bharal (Pseudois nayaur), goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa), Asian wild ass (Equus hemionus), and wild Bactrian camel (Camelus ferus), exhibited high relative abundance indices, indicating a strong preference for utilizing passages. Passage utilization rates exhibited significant seasonal and diurnal variations. Winter usage was the lowest, followed by an increase in spring, peaking in summer and autumn. Birds exhibited particularly high passage utilization rates during migratory seasons, with the peak occurring in April. Additionally, nocturnal passage utilization rates were significantly higher than during other periods, with both sunrise and sunset showing positive selection, as indicated by 86.86% and 91.30% of monitored sites recording JSI > 0. To enhance the effectiveness of passages, seasonal and diurnal variations should be fully considered in passage construction and management, particularly by minimizing human activity during nighttime, dawn, and dusk. Utilization rates were significantly constrained by the intensity of human activity and the density of linear infrastructure. Passage type, size, and proximity to water were also critical factors. Optimizing passage layout, implementing dynamic management in grassland fence areas, increasing passage density, and enhancing ecological functionality are recommended strategies to facilitate wildlife movement and support biodiversity conservation.

Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) supports a plethora of biodiversity with a unique assemblage of many charismatic and endemic species. We assessed the genetic diversity, demographic history, and habitat suitability of blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) in the IHR through the analysis of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region (CR) and Cytochrome b gene, and 14 ecological predictor variables. We observed high genetic divergence and designated them into two genetic lineage groups, i.e., the Himalayan blue sheep (P. n. nayaur) in the western part, and the Chinese blue sheep (P. n. szechuanensis) in the eastern part. They exhibited poor connectivity due to landscape resistance. The genetic distance value suggested substantial genetic differentiation between them. The habitat selection by blue sheep indicated the disparity between the residence preferences in the western and eastern Himalayas. In both the regions, the habitat suitability was mostly influenced by the minimumtemperature of the coldest month. However, in the eastern Himalayas,precipitation seasonalityemerged as a significant variable influencing habitat suitability. These findings provided strong support for the presumption that the habitats preferred by blue sheep in the western Himalayas are dryer, compared with the preferred habitats in the eastern region, which were moister. The identification of two separate lineages of P. nayaur in the IHR has significant conservation implications as it underlines the necessity for a unique management approach for each lineage. In order to preserve genetic integrity, conservation efforts must make sure that each population is maintained and monitored separately, as genetic divergence across the lineages that might indicate reproductive isolation. This study has potential conservation implications as it provides insights on the crucial ecological information of a relatively lesser-known ungulates species of Himalaya essential for effective conservation planning.

Understanding species' dietary ecology and interspecific interactions is crucial for multi-species conservation planning. In Central Asia and the Himalayas, wolves have recolonized snow leopard habitats, raising considerable concern about resource competition between these apex predators. Using micro-histological analysis of prey species remains (e.g., hair) in their fecal samples, we determined the prey composition, dietary niche breadth, and the extent of diet overlap between these two apex predators in Shey Phoksundo National Park, Nepal. We analyzed 152 scat samples collected along 89 survey transects from April to June 2021. Our findings reveal a significant overlap in their diets (Pianka's index = 0.93), with snow leopard and wolf scats containing the remains of 11 and 10 prey species, respectively. However, the interspecific difference in prey selection was apparent, with significant deviations between observed and expected prey use indicating non-random prey selection relative to availability: Snow leopards exhibited a higher occurrence of wild prey items in their diet (55.28%), primarily blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) (24.83%), whereas wolves relied predominantly on domestic livestock (67.89%), with goats (Capra hircus) accounting for over one-fourth of their diet (29.15%). Yaks (Bos grunniens) comprised a significant portion of the biomass consumed by both predators, with higher for wolves (43.68%) than snow leopards (36.47%). Overall, the narrow dietary niche breadth with high overlap indicates potential resource competition between snow leopards and wolves. However, a comprehensive understanding of resource competition will require further study on other axes of niche partitioning, including habitat and time. Nevertheless, the region's low prey richness means that, with increasing human influence, any reduction in wild prey or increase in livestock could intensify competition between snow leopards and wolves, which could have implications for livestock depredation.

The blue sheep and Himalayan thar were counted using the vantage count method to obtain population and demographic status in Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve, western Nepal between April and May of 2021. We used binoculars (Olympus 10 × 50 and Nikon 10 × 42) and spotting scopes (Nikon 20–60 × 75 and Bushnell 20–60 × 65) for identifying the animals into class and sex categories. A total of 1290 blue sheep were counted in six hunting blocks of DHR with an apparent density of 2.2 animals/km2 in 79 herds (mean heard size: 16.33 ± 1.53). Maximum numbers of blue sheep were recorded from Dogadi (n=361) and low numbers in Sundaha block (n=89). We found a significant difference in the average herd size of blue sheep among the six blocks, possibly due to human-induced disturbances as some blocks are relatively accessible and closer to human settlements. However, there was no significant difference in the average male and female sex ratio and density between hunting blocks. Similarly, a total of 744 Himalayan tahr were observed in six hunting blocks with an apparent density of 1.49 animal/km2 in 50 herds (mean heard size: 14.88±2.29). Maximum numbers of tahr were recorded from Ghustung (n=387) and low numbers in Surtibang block (n=12). We found a significant difference in the average herd size of Himalayan tahr and male to female sex ratio, but not a significant difference in density between hunting blocks. Regular study of population dynamics in the context of trophy hunting is very crucial. Thus, annual surveys of these game species are recommended for designing sustainable game trophy hunting in the region.

Limited information exists on the diet of snow leopards (SL), factors affecting livestock mortality, and local attitudes toward SL conservation in the Manaslu Conservation Area (MCA), Nepal. Therefore, we aim to investigate the dietary preferences of SL, the factors influencing livestock mortality, and local conservation attitudes. From November 2021 to January 2022, 23 SL scats were collected along 24 transects (total length: 21.6 km) in MCA. Camera traps, set within 4 km × 4 km grids at 28 stations for 661 trap nights, were used to assess prey availability. Jacobs’ index calculated prey preference, while a Generalized Linear Mixed Model (GLMM) assessed factors linked to livestock depredation. Additionally, 65 households from two villages were randomly selected in a survey on depredation and conservation attitudes. Scat analysis identified six wild prey species, including pika (Ochotona sp.), Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), and blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), as well as three domestic species: ox/cow, yak, and horse. Himalayan tahr had the highest presence in the SL diet (40%). Despite pika having the highest Relative Abundance Index (RAI), SL strongly preferred horses and avoided pika. Larger prey, such as horses, Himalayan tahr, and blue sheep, were highly preferred. Households with more livestock experienced higher depredation rates. Local attitudes toward SL conservation were generally positive, with an average score of 2.59. We recommend an integrated SL conservation plan in MCA, incorporating local participation, income diversification, and employment programs to mitigate conflicts and promote coexistence.

Understanding of predator feeding ecology, interactions among co-occurring predator species, and seasonal changes is critical for conservation management given the important role that predators play in shaping their ecosystems, but is lacking for most regions of the world. Dietary studies have demonstrated varying conclusions in the role that resource partitioning plays in the maintenance of predator communities due to complex inter-related factors that may shape prey use. We used DNA metabarcoding on 581 scat samples to determine the dietary composition, similarity, diversity, and niche overlap of eight predator species (Tibetan wolf (Canis lupus), snow leopard (Panthera uncia), Tibetan brown bear (Ursus arctos pruinosus), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), Tibetan fox (Vulpes ferrilata), red fox (V. vulpes), Pallas's cat (Otocolobus manul), and beech marten (Martes foina)) across four sampling periods (September 2019, December 2019, March 2020, July 2020) in the Gouli Nature Reserve located in Dulan County, Qinghai Province, China. We identified 26 unique prey items, with blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) and pika (Ochotona spp.) being most common. Small mammals had the highest frequency of occurrence, while domestic and wild ungulates contributed the most biomass. No significant differences in diet were detected across months, with the exception of March and December for the red fox (p = 0.010). Dietary niche overlap was greater than expected when considering all species (p < 0.001) across seasons and between the Tibetan wolf and snow leopard in March (p = 0.007) when compared for species pairs by season. This study contributes to understanding of fine-scale temporal changes in predator diet, and offers methodological and management strategies that may have applicability to other predator guilds living in complex landscapes.

Spatiotemporal interactions between predators and prey are central to maintaining sustainable functioning ecosystems and community stability. For wild ungulates and their predators, livestock grazing is an important anthropogenic disturbance causing population declines and modifying their interactions over time and space. However, it is poorly understood how fine-scale grazing affects the spatiotemporal responses of predators, prey, and their interactions. Two opposing hypotheses describe a dichotomy of possible effects. The human shield hypothesis states that people can protect prey because predators avoid areas with high human-induced mortality risk, whereas in the human competitor hypothesis, humans compete for prey and negatively impact predators through reduced prey availability. We used camera-trapping data from the Gansu Qilianshan National Nature Reserve in Northwest China to measure occupancy, daily activity patterns, and spatiotemporal interactions between snow leopards (Panthera uncia), the dominant predator, and their ungulate prey in areas with contrasting grazing intensities. The results of grazing were consistent with both the human-shield and human-competitor hypotheses, affecting spatiotemporal patterns and interactions of predators and prey. For the primary prey species, blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), their spatial and temporal patterns were affected by grazing, which led to a reduction in interaction frequencies with snow leopards. For secondary prey, grazing led to reduced interaction frequencies with snow leopards for white-lipped deer (Przewalskium albirostris) and red deer (Cervus yarkandensis), but increased frequencies for alpine musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster). Our results indicate how both competition among livestock and prey and predator or prey avoidance of grazed areas can impact populations and predator-prey interactions. Our findings are relevant to grazing management and snow leopard conservation.

Wild ungulates employ spatio-temporal niche partitioning to coexist with livestock in resource-limited Trans-Himalayan rangelands, India