Blocking Peptides Research Articles

Roles of Individual Disulfide Bridges in the Conformation and Activity of μ-Conotoxin GIIIA, a Peptide Blocker of Muscle Sodium Channels

Seven analogs of μ-conotoxin GIIIA (μ-GIIIA), a specific blocker of muscle sodium channels, were synthesized by replacing stepwise the three cystine residues with Ala. The circular dichroism spectra of the analogs suggested that the deletion of disulfide bonds gradually randamized a conformation. The inhibitory effects on the twitch contractions of the rat diaphragm showed that the deletion of one disulfide bond reduced the potency to less than 1 % of control. Monocyclic analogs and a linear analog were almost inactive. Therefore, all three disulfide bridges are essential for stabilizing the specific conformation of μ-GIIIA to show biological activity.

Notch signaling and new therapeutic options in liver disease

Notch signaling is a crucial determinant of cell fate decision during development and disease in several organs. Notch effects are strictly dependent on the cellular context in which it is activated. In the liver, Notch signaling is involved in biliary tree development and tubulogenesis. Recent advances have shed light on Notch as a critical player in liver regeneration and repair, as well as in liver metabolism and inflammation and cancer. Notch signaling is finely regulated at several levels. The complexity of the pathway provides several possible targets for development of therapeutic agents able to inhibit Notch. Recent reports have shown that persistent activation of Notch signaling is associated with liver malignancies, particularly hepatocellular with stem cell features and cholangiocarcinoma. These novel findings suggest that interfering with the aberrant activation of the Notch pathway may have therapeutic relevance. However, further studies are needed to clarify the mechanisms regulating physiologic and pathologic Notch activation in the adult liver, to better understand the mechanistic role(s) of Notch in liver diseases and to develop safe and specific therapeutic agents.

A Potent and Selective Peptide Blocker of the Kv1.3 Channel: Prediction from Free-Energy Simulations and Experimental Confirmation

The voltage-gated potassium channel Kv1.3 is a well-established target for treatment of autoimmune diseases. ShK peptide from a sea anemone is one of the most potent blockers of Kv1.3 but its application as a therapeutic agent for autoimmune diseases is limited by its lack of selectivity against other Kv channels, in particular Kv1.1. Accurate models of Kv1.x-ShK complexes suggest that specific charge mutations on ShK could considerably enhance its specificity for Kv1.3. Here we evaluate the K18A mutation on ShK, and calculate the change in binding free energy associated with this mutation using the path-independent free energy perturbation and thermodynamic integration methods, with a novel implementation that avoids convergence problems. To check the accuracy of the results, the binding free energy differences were also determined from path-dependent potential of mean force calculations. The two methods yield consistent results for the K18A mutation in ShK and predict a 2 kcal/mol gain in Kv1.3/Kv1.1 selectivity free energy relative to wild-type peptide. Functional assays confirm the predicted selectivity gain for ShK[K18A] and suggest that it will be a valuable lead in the development of therapeutics for autoimmune diseases.

An important role of tumor necrosis factor receptor-2 on natural killer T cells on the development of dsRNA-enhanced Th2 cell response to inhaled allergens

Recent evidence indicates that TNF-α is a key mediator of the development of dsRNA-enhanced Th2 cell response to inhaled allergens. Natural killer T (NKT) cells may be a candidate source of Th2-polarizing cytokines. The objective of this study was to evaluate the role of lung NKT cells on the development of TNF-α-mediated Th2 cell response. A virus-associated asthma mouse model was generated by the administration of ovalbumin (OVA, 75μg) and poly[I:C] (0.1μg). Role of NKT and type I NKT cells was evaluated using CD1d- and Jα18-deficient mice. TNF-α receptors (TNFRs) were antagonized by using TNFR blocking peptides. The number of infiltrated NKT cells was increased in a virus-associated asthma mouse model. Increase in Th2 and Th17 cytokine levels in wild-type mice were abolished in both CD1d- and Jα18-deficient mice. In vitro co-culture experiments with alveolar macrophages and NKT cells showed that TNF-α produced by macrophages in the presence of poly[I:C] acts on NKT cells, inducing production of Th2-polarizing cytokines. Moreover, the induction of Th2-polarizing cytokines by poly[I:C] or recombinant TNF-α was impaired in both CD1d- and Jα18-deficient mice and that the above effect was reversed by a TNF-α receptor-2 (TNFR2) blocking peptide, but not by a TNFR1 blocker. These findings suggest that NKT cells play a key role in the development of Th2 cell response to inhaled allergens and that TNF-α produced by alveolar macrophages induces Th2 cell response, via TNFR2 on NKT cells.

The influence of gap junction network complexity on pulmonary artery smooth muscle reactivity in normoxic and chronically hypoxic conditions

Experiments on intrapulmonary arteries (IPAs) isolated from rats maintained in normoxia and chronic hypobaric hypoxia showed that in normoxia, the IPA contractile sensitivity to KCl was not modified by gap junction inhibition. In contrast, chronic hypoxia induced an endothelium-independent hypersensitivity, which was suppressed by gap junction inhibition. For the theoretical analysis of these results, we developed a model of interconnected myocytes. Given that smooth muscle cells in IPAs are known to communicate via gap junctions, we regard the cytoarchitecture of the IPA as a spatial network, in which nodes represent individual smooth muscle cells and the links signify intercellular communication. A single-cell model that drives the dynamics of individual nodes includes the major elements of voltage-dependent Ca(2+) signalling. In addition, interindividual variability of SMCs is introduced by distributing the reversal potentials for K(+). Cell-to-cell connection consists of passive Ca(2+) diffusion and electrical coupling, and connection between cells is determined by the topology of the intercellular network. Model predictions indicate that the experimental results can be explained by topological modifications and not by changes in the number of gap junctions. According to the model, in normoxia the myocytes are connected in a complex network, whereas chronic hypoxia is related to loss of complexity, leading to hypersensitivity. Our results thus indicate that chronic hypoxia entails gap junction network rearrangements, leading to disturbances in the intercellular communication pathways.

Matrix Metalloproteinase Inhibition in Atherosclerosis and Stroke

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of tightly regulated, zinc-dependent proteases that degrade extracellular matrix (ECM), cell surface, and intracellular proteins. Vascular remodeling, whether as a function of normal physiology or as a consequence of a myriad of pathological processes, requires degradation of the ECM. Thus, the expression and activity of many MMPs are up-regulated in numerous conditions affecting the vasculature and often exacerbate vascular dysfunction. A growing body of evidence supports the rationale of using MMP inhibitors for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases, stroke, and chronic vascular dementia. This manuscript will examine promising targets for MMP inhibition in atherosclerosis and stroke, reviewing findings in preclinical animal models and human patient studies. Strategies for MMP inhibition have progressed beyond chelating the catalytic zinc to functional blocking antibodies and peptides that target either the active site or exosites of the enzyme. While the inhibition of MMP activity presents a rational therapeutic avenue, the multiplicity of roles for MMPs and the non-selective nature of MMP inhibitors that cause unintended side-effects hinder full realization of MMP inhibition as therapy for vascular disease. For optimal therapeutic effects to be realized, specific targets for MMP inhibition in these pathologies must first be identified and then attacked by potent and selective agents during the most appropriate timepoint.

Abstract 213: TRPV1 Mediates Remote and Direct Cardioprotection

Introduction: The transient receptor potential 1 channel (TRPV1) mediates signals from pain, heat, and/or noxious stimuli. TRPV1 sensitization can occur via a protein kinase C (PKC)-dependent mechanism in neurons. Therefore, we tested whether TRPV1 is a mediator of cardioprotection in models of ischemia-reperfusion and whether the molecular mechanism of cardioprotection occurs via PKC-induced TRPV1 channel sensitization. Methods: Male Sprague Dawley rats and H9C2 left ventricle-derived cells were used for whole animal and cellular ischemia-reperfusion studies to test this hypothesis. Statistical analysis regarding infarct size, calculated as percentage of area at risk per left ventricle, was performed by a one way ANOVA (*P<0.01). Results: Remote preconditioning-induced infarct size reduction via an abdominal surgical incision was blocked by prior administration of a selective TRPV1 peptide inhibitor, V1-B (3.0mg/kg), given over the incision site (Incision: 44±2*% V1-B+Incision: 65±2% versus Control: 64±1% n=6/group). Capsaicin (0.3mg/kg) given intravenously through the internal jugular vein reduced infarct size in vivo , which was blocked by prior capsazepine (TRPV1 inhibitor, 3.0mg/kg) administration (Capsaicin: 43±2* Capsaicin+ capsazepine: 64±4 versus Control: 62±3, n=7/group). Further in an ex vivo isolated heart model, infarct size reduction afforded by the selective epsilon PKC activator (pseudo epsilon RACK, 1uM) was partially blocked with prior treatment of V1-B (1uM), the TRPV1 peptide blocker (pseudo epsilon RACK: 20±2*%, pseudo epsilon RACK+V1-B: 42±4% versus control: 47±4%, n=7/group). TRPV1 expression was found in both whole heart homogenate and in the H9C2 cell line. Using a model of ischemia-reoxygenation in H9C2 cells, capsaicin treatment before and during ischemia-reoxygenation reduced cellular damage as assessed by MTT and LDH assays. Greater damage occurred with TRPV1 inhibition by capsazepine compared to control. Conclusions: Our studies suggest TRPV1 contributes an essential role for both remote and direct cardioprotection. Further studies are ongoing to determine the post-translational sites on TRPV1 and how a TRPV1-epsilon PKC protein-protein interaction induces cardioprotection.

(Pro)renin receptor is required for prorenin-dependent and -independent regulation of vacuolar H+-ATPase activity in MDCK.C11 collecting duct cells

Prorenin binding to the prorenin receptor [(P)RR] results in nonproteolytic activation of prorenin but also directly (i.e., independent of angiotensin generation) activates signal transduction cascades that can lead to the upregulation of profibrotic factors. The (P)RR is an accessory protein of vacuolar-type H⁺-ATPase (V-ATPase) and is required for V-ATPase integrity. In addition, in collecting duct cells, prorenin-induced activation of Erk depends on V-ATPase activity. However, whether prorenin binding to the (P)RR directly regulates V-ATPase activity is as yet unknown. Here, we studied the effect of prorenin on plasma membrane V-ATPase activity in Madin-Darby canine kidney clone 11 (MDCK.C11) cells, which resemble intercalated cells of the collecting duct. Prorenin increased V-ATPase activity at low nanomolar concentrations, and the V-ATPase inhibitor bafilomycin A1, but not the angiotensin II type 1 and 2 receptor blockers irbesartan and PD-123319, prevented this. Increased, but not basal, V-ATPase activity was abolished by small interfering RNA depletion of the (P)RR. Unexpectedly, the putative peptidic (P)RR blocker handle region peptide also increased V-ATPase activity in a (P)RR-dependent manner. Finally, [Arg⁸]-vasopressin-stimulated V-ATPase activity and cAMP production were also abolished by (P)RR depletion. Our results show that in MDCK.C11 cells, the (P)RR is required for prorenin-dependent and -independent regulation of V-ATPase activity.

Multiple activating and repressive cis-promoter regions regulate TNFSF15 expression in human primary mononuclear cells

TL1A/TNFSF15 has been associated with IBD (inflammatory bowel disease) in GWAS (genome-wide association study) and plays a role mediating mucosal inflammation in IBD. Higher TL1A expression is associated with disease severity in both patients and mouse models. Although TL1A has been studied extensively for IBD-associated SNPs, the cis/trans-regulatory regions are poorly defined. Herein we identify response elements regulating TNFSF15 in primary human myeloid cells. Peripheral mononuclear cells transfected with TNFSF15 promoter constructs displayed 30-fold enhanced promoter activity in a minimal −74bp region. Transactivation was mediated partly by AP-1, since mutation of the AP-1 site resulting in loss of promoter activity. Monocytes transfected with c-Jun siRNA or treated with TAT-TI-JIP (JNK Inhibitor VII TAT-TI-JIP) demonstrated reduced TL1A mRNA and protein levels. Surprisingly, constructs larger than −74bp did not increase promoter expression (expression of −1275bp construct was 25% of −74bp activity), suggesting the presence of both activating and repressing TL1A promoter elements. In fact, mutation of the −210bp NFκB site enhanced promoter activity (60-fold) suggesting a repressive role for this site. DNA–protein binding to the TL1A AP-1 and NFκB elements was inhibited by excess consensus or TL1A oligonucleotides and binding and confirmed by chromatin immuno-precipitation analysis. Yet, despite the fact that the −210bp NFκB site acts as a suppressor element, overall mRNA and protein expression were inhibited in monocytes treated with MG132 (NFκB/proteasome inhibitor) or SN50 (NFκB-p50 blocking peptide), suggesting that NFκB acts as both an activator and silencer of TL1A expression. These data suggest that modulation of TL1A expression involves a complex interplay between positive and negative signals, binding to distinct regulatory regions.

Mammalian Neuronal Sodium Channel Blocker μ-Conotoxin BuIIIB Has a Structured N-Terminus That Influences Potency

Among the μ-conotoxins that block vertebrate voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs), some have been shown to be potent analgesics following systemic administration in mice. We have determined the solution structure of a new representative of this family, μ-BuIIIB, and established its disulfide connectivities by direct mass spectrometric collision induced dissociation fragmentation of the peptide with disulfides intact. The major oxidative folding product adopts a 1-4/2-5/3-6 pattern with the following disulfide bridges: Cys5-Cys17, Cys6-Cys23, and Cys13-Cys24. The solution structure reveals that the unique N-terminal extension in μ-BuIIIB, which is also present in μ-BuIIIA and μ-BuIIIC but absent in other μ-conotoxins, forms part of a short α-helix encompassing Glu3 to Asn8. This helix is packed against the rest of the toxin and stabilized by the Cys5-Cys17 and Cys6-Cys23 disulfide bonds. As such, the side chain of Val1 is located close to the aromatic rings of Trp16 and His20, which are located on the canonical helix that displays several residues found to be essential for VGSC blockade in related μ-conotoxins. Mutations of residues 2 and 3 in the N-terminal extension enhanced the potency of μ-BuIIIB for NaV1.3. One analogue, [d-Ala2]BuIIIB, showed a 40-fold increase, making it the most potent peptide blocker of this channel characterized to date and thus a useful new tool with which to characterize this channel. On the basis of previous results for related μ-conotoxins, the dramatic effects of mutations at the N-terminus were unanticipated and suggest that further gains in potency might be achieved by additional modifications of this region.

Radiation-induced TNFα cross signaling-dependent nuclear import of NFκB favors metastasis in neuroblastoma

Ascertaining function-specific orchestration of NFκB in response to radiation may reveal a molecular blue-print that dictates induced relapse and metastasis of the neuroblastoma. We recently demonstrated that sustained activation of NFκB caused by ionizing radiation (IR)-initiated TNFα-NFκB feedback signaling leads to radioresistance and recurrence of neuroblastoma. We investigated whether muting IR-triggered or TNFα-dependent second-signaling feedback-dependent NFκB nuclear import results in limiting IR-altered invasion and metastasis. Neuroblastoma cells were exposed to 2 Gy and incubated for 1 h or 24 h. The cells were then treated with an NFκB-targeting peptide blocker, SN50. Upon confirming the blockade in DNA-binding activity, transcription driven transactivation of NFκB and secretion of soluble TNFα, transcriptional alterations of 93 tumor invasion/metastasis genes were assessed by using QPCR profiling and then were selectively validated at the protein level. Exposure to 2 Gy induced 63, 42 and 71 genes in surviving SH-SY5Y, IMR-32 and SK-N-MC cells, respectively. Blocking post-translational nuclear import of NFκB comprehensively inhibited both initial activation of genes (62/63, 34/42 and 65/71) triggered by IR and also TNFα-mediated second signaling-dependent sustained (59/63, 32/42 and 71/71) activation of tumor invasion and metastasis signaling molecules. Furthermore, alterations in the proteins MMP9, MMP2, PYK-2, SPA-1, Dnmt3b, Ask-1, CTGF, MMP10, MTA-2, NF-2, E-Cadherin, TIMP-2 and ADAMTS1 and the results of our scratch-wound assay validate the role of post-translational NFκB in IR-regulated invasion/metastasis. These data demonstrate that IR-induced second-phase (post-translational) NFκB activation mediates TNFα-dependent second signaling and further implies that IR induced NFκB in cells that survive after treatment regulates tumor invasion/metastasis signaling.

Surfactant Protein-A Modulates LPS-Induced TLR4 Localization and Signaling via β-Arrestin 2

The soluble C-type lectin surfactant protein (SP)-A mediates lung immune responses partially via its direct effects on alveolar macrophages (AM), the main resident leukocytes exposed to antigens. SP-A modulates the AM threshold of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) activity towards an anti-inflammatory phenotype both in vitro and in vivo through various mechanisms. LPS responses are tightly regulated via distinct pathways including subcellular TLR4 localization and thus ligand sensing. The cytosolic scaffold and signaling protein β-arrestin 2 acts as negative regulator of LPS-induced TLR4 activation. Here we show that SP-A neither increases TLR4 abundancy nor co-localizes with TLR4 in primary AM. SP-A significantly reduces the LPS-induced co-localization of TLR4 with the early endosome antigen (EEA) 1 by promoting the co-localization of TLR4 with the post-Golgi compartment marker Vti1b in freshly isolated AM from rats and wild-type (WT) mice, but not in β-arrestin 2−/− AM. Compared to WT mice pulmonary LPS-induced TNF-α release in β-arrestin 2−/− mice is accelerated and enhanced and exogenous SP-A fails to inhibit both lung LPS-induced TNF-α release and TLR4/EEA1 positioning. SP-A, but not LPS, enhances β-arrestin 2 protein expression in a time-dependent manner in primary rat AM. The constitutive expression of β-arrestin 2 in AM from SP-A−/− mice is significantly reduced compared to SP-A+/+ mice and is rescued by SP-A. Prolonged endosome retention of LPS-induced TLR4 in AM from SP-A−/− mice is restored by exogenous SP-A, and is antagonized by β-arrestin 2 blocking peptides. LPS induces β-arrestin 2/TLR4 association in primary AM which is further enhanced by SP-A. The data demonstrate that SP-A modulates LPS-induced TLR4 trafficking and signaling in vitro and in vivo engaging β-arrestin 2.

Endothelial Expression of Guidance Cues in Vessel Wall Homeostasis Dysregulation Under Proatherosclerotic Conditions

Emerging evidence suggests that neuronal guidance cues, typically expressed during development, are involved in both physiological and pathological immune responses. We hypothesized that endothelial expression of such guidance cues may regulate leukocyte trafficking into the vascular wall during atherogenesis. We demonstrate that members of the netrin, semaphorin, and ephrin family of guidance molecules are differentially regulated under conditions that promote or protect from atherosclerosis. Netrin-1 and semaphorin3A are expressed by coronary artery endothelial cells and potently inhibit chemokine-directed migration of human monocytes. Endothelial expression of these negative guidance cues is downregulated by proatherogenic factors, including oscillatory shear stress and proinflammatory cytokines associated with monocyte entry into the vessel wall. Furthermore, we show using intravital microscopy that inhibition of netrin-1 or semaphorin3A using blocking peptides increases leukocyte adhesion to the endothelium. Unlike netrin-1 and semaphorin3A, the guidance cue ephrinB2 is upregulated under proatherosclerotic flow conditions and functions as a chemoattractant, increasing leukocyte migration in the absence of additional chemokines. The concurrent regulation of negative and positive guidance cues may facilitate leukocyte infiltration of the endothelium through a balance between chemoattraction and chemorepulsion. These data indicate a previously unappreciated role for axonal guidance cues in maintaining the endothelial barrier and regulating leukocyte trafficking during atherogenesis.

Attenuated PLD1 association and signalling at the H452Y polymorphic form of the 5-HT2A receptor

The 5-HT2A receptor (5-HT2AR) is implicated in psychotropic changes within the central nervous system (CNS). A number of polymorphisms have been reported in the 5-HT2AR gene; one of these results in a non-synonymous change, H452Y, in the carboxy-terminal tail of the receptor protein. The minor allele (9% occurrence) has been statistically associated with CNS dysfunction such as impaired memory processing and resistance to neuroleptic treatment in schizophrenic patients. We investigated the impact of H452Y mutation of the 5-HT2AR expressed in COS7 cells on distinctly coupled intracellular signalling pathways from the receptor, focusing on the heterotrimeric G protein-independent phospholipase D (PLD) pathway, compared to the conventional Gq/11-linked phospholipase C (PLC) pathway. The H452Y mutation selectively attenuated PLD signalling, which as in the wild-type receptor, was mediated by a molecular complex involving PLD1 docked to the receptor's carboxy-terminal tail domain. Co-immunoprecipitation and GST-fusion protein experiments revealed that the H452Y mutation selectively reduced PLD1 binding to the receptor. Experiments with blocking peptides to mimic short sections of the 5-HT2AR tail sequence revealed that the peptide spanning residue 452 strongly reduced PLD but not PLC responses of the receptor. Similar observations were made when assessing both PLD responses and PLD-dependent cellular proliferation elicited by activation of 5-HT2ARs natively expressed in MCF-7 cells. Overall these findings indicate that the H452Y polymorphic variant of the 5-HT2AR displays selective disruption of its PLD signalling pathway. This may potentially play a role in the CNS dysfunction associated with the H452Y allele of the 5-HT2AR.

The transition of mouse pluripotent stem cells from the naïve to the primed state requires Fas signaling through 3-O sulfated heparan sulfate structures recognized by the HS4C3 antibody

The characteristics of pluripotent embryonic stem cells of human and mouse are different. The properties of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) are similar to those of mouse epiblast stem cells (mEpiSCs), which are in a later developmental pluripotency state, the so-called “primed state” compared to mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) which are in a naïve state. As a result of the properties of the primed state, hESCs proliferate slowly, cannot survive as single cells, and can only be transfected with genes at low efficiency. Generating hESCs in the naïve state is necessary to overcome these problems and allow their application in regenerative medicine. Therefore, clarifying the mechanism of the transition between the naïve and primed states in pluripotent stem cells is important for the establishment of stable methods of generating naïve state hESCs. However, the signaling pathways which contribute to the transition between the naïve and primed states are still unclear. In this study, we carried out induction from mESCs to mEpiSC-like cells (mEpiSCLCs), and observed an increase in the activation of Fas signaling during the induction. The expression of Fgf5, an epiblast marker, was diminished by inhibition of Fas signaling using the caspase-8 and -3 blocking peptides, IETD and DEVD, respectively. Furthermore, during the induction, we observed increased expression of 3-O sulfated heparan sulfate (HS) structures synthesized by HS 3-O-sulfotransferase (3OST), which are recognized by the HS4C3 antibody (HS4C3-binding epitope). Knockdown of 3OST-5 reduced Fas signaling and the potential for the transition to mEpiSCLCs. This indicates that the HS4C3-binding epitope is necessary for the transition to the primed state. We propose that Fas signaling through the HS4C3-binding epitope contributes to the transition from the naïve state to the primed state.

Molecular approaches for structural characterization of a new potassium channel blocker from Tityus stigmurus venom: cDNA cloning, homology modeling, dynamic simulations and docking

Potassium channels are involved in the maintenance of resting membrane potential, control of cardiac and neuronal excitability, neurotransmitters release, muscle contractility and hormone secretion. The Tityus stigmurus scorpion is widely distributed in Northeastern Brazil and known to cause severe human envenomations, inducing pain, hypoesthesia, edema, erythema, paresthesia, headaches and vomiting. Most potassium channel blocking peptides that have been purified from scorpion venoms contain 30–40 amino acids with three or four disulfide bridges. These peptides belong to α-KTx subfamily. On the other hand, the β-KTx subfamily is poorly characterized, though it is very representative in some scorpion venoms. A transcriptomic approach of T.stigmurus scorpions developed by our group revealed the repertoire of possible molecules present in the venom, including many toxins of the β-KTx subfamily. One of the ESTs found, named TSTI0003C has a cDNA sequence of 538bp codifying a mature protein with 47 amino acid residues, corresponding to 5299Da. This β-KTx peptide is a new member of the BmTXKβ-related toxins, and was here named TstKMK. The three-dimensional structure of this potassium channel toxin of the T. stigmurus scorpion was obtained by computational modeling and refined by molecular dynamic simulations. Furthermore, we have made docking simulations using a Shaker kV-1.2 potassium channel from rats as receptor model and proposed which amino acid residues and interactions could be involved in its blockade.

K+-Cl− cotransporter-2 KCC2 in chicken cardiomyocytes

Using antibodies prepared against a unique region (exon 22-24) of rat K(+)-Cl(-) cotransporter-2 (KCC2), we confirmed that the ~140-kDa KCC2 protein is exclusively expressed in rat brain, but in chicken, we observed strong reactivity not only with the ~140-kDa KCC2 protein in brain but also a slightly larger ~145-kDa protein in heart. In silico analysis showed that while exon 22 of KCC2 is unique to this isoform in therian mammals, it is retained in KCC2's closest paralog, KCC4, of lower vertebrates, including chicken. To eliminate potential cross-reactivity with chicken KCC4, the antibodies were preadsorbed with blocking peptides prepared over the only two regions showing significant sequence identity to chicken KCC4. This completely eliminated antibody recognition of exogenously expressed chicken KCC4 but not of the ~145-kDa protein in chicken heart, indicating that chicken heart expresses KCC2. Real-time PCR confirmed robust KCC2 transcript expression in both chicken brain and heart. Chicken heart expressed predominantly the longer KCC2a splice variant consistent with the larger ~145-kDa protein in chicken heart. Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed prominent plasma membrane KCC2 labeling in chicken ventricular cardiomyocytes. We hypothesize that KCC2 is an important Cl(-) extrusion pathway in avian cardiomyocytes that counters channel-mediated Cl(-) loading during high heart rates with β-adrenergic stimulation. While KCC2 is absent from mammalian cardiomyocytes, understanding the role that the other KCC isoforms play in Cl(-) homeostasis of these cells represents a nascent area of research.

P/Q‐type calcium channel modulators

P/Q-type calcium channels are high-voltage-gated calcium channels contributing to vesicle release at synaptic terminals. A number of neurological diseases have been attributed to malfunctioning of P/Q channels, including ataxia, migraine and Alzheimer's disease. To date, only two specific P/Q-type blockers are known: both are peptides deriving from the spider venom of Agelenopsis aperta, ω-agatoxins. Other peptidic calcium channel blockers with activity at P/Q channels are available, albeit with less selectivity. A number of low molecular weight compounds modulate P/Q-type currents with different characteristics, and some exhibit a peculiar bidirectional pattern of modulation. Interestingly, there are a number of therapeutics in clinical use, which also show P/Q channel activity. Because selectivity as well as the exact mode of action is different between all P/Q-type channel modulators, the interpretation of clinical and experimental data is complicated and needs a comprehensive understanding of their target profile. The situation is further complicated by the fact that information on potency varies vastly in the literature, which may be the result of different experimental systems, conditions or the splice variants of the P/Q channel. This review attempts to provide a comprehensive overview of the compounds available that affect the P/Q-type channel and should help with the interpretation of results of in vitro experiments and animal models. It also aims to explain some clinical observations by implementing current knowledge about P/Q channel modulation of therapeutically used non-selective drugs. Chances and challenges of the development of P/Q channel-selective molecules are discussed.

Abstract 215: An Agonistic Human Monoclonal Autoantibody to the β2-adrenergic Receptor: Implications in Postural Hypotension

Functional autoantibodies directed to the autonomic receptors have been increasingly recognized to contribute to the pathophysiology of various cardiovascular diseases. However, to date, no human monoclonal autoantibodies to these receptors with agonist activity have been available. We have recently reported a subgroup of patients with idiopathic postural hypotension who have no known etiology are associated with vasodilatory autoantibodies to the β2-adrenergic receptor (β2AR). Using standard hybridoma techniques, we produced a β2AR-activating monoclonal autoantibody C5F2 from the peripheral blood lymphocytes of a patient with idiopathic postural hypotension and high ELISA antibody titers to a peptide corresponding to the second extracellular loop (ECL2) of β2AR. C5F2 was of the IgG3 isotype and recognized an epitope located at the N-terminus of β2AR ECL2 as determined by epitope mapping using multipin peptide synthesis. Confocal immunofluorescence revealed C5F2 binding to the β2AR in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells transfected with human β2AR and rat cremaster arterioles, both of which were inhibited by presabsorption with the β2AR ECL2 peptide. Functionally, the C5F2 IgG stimulated cyclic AMP production in β2AR-expressing CHO cells in a dose-dependent manner (0.005-5 mg/ml). C5F2-induced cyclic AMP activation was specifically blocked by both the β2AR ECL2 peptide and β2AR selective antagonist ICI-118551. In an isolated rat cremaster arteriole assay, infusion of the C5F2 IgG produced a potent vasodilation which was inhibited by the β2AR ECL2 peptide and β2AR blocker ICI-118551 (from 67.8±5.8% to 9.3±5.1% and 4.4±2.1% of maximal dilatory response, respectively), indicating that antibody activation of vascular β2AR may contribute to systemic vasodilation. These data support the concept that circulating agonistic autoantibodies serve as vasodilators and may cause or exacerbate orthostasis by altering the compensatory postural vascular response. The availability of this first human monoclonal autoantibody to the β2AR provides opportunities to identify previously unrecognized causes and new pharmacological management of postural hypotension.

Local ASIC3 modulates pain and disease progression in a rat model of osteoarthritis

BackgroundRecent data have suggested a relationship between acute arthritic pain and acid sensing ion channel 3 (ASIC3) on primary afferent fibers innervating joints. The purpose of this study was to clarify the role of ASIC3 in a rat model of osteoarthritis (OA) which is considered a degenerative rather than an inflammatory disease.MethodsWe induced OA via intra-articular mono-iodoacetate (MIA) injection, and evaluated pain-related behaviors including weight bearing measured with an incapacitance tester and paw withdrawal threshold in a von Frey hair test, histology of affected knee joint, and immunohistochemistry of knee joint afferents. We also assessed the effect of ASIC3 selective peptide blocker (APETx2) on pain behavior, disease progression, and ASIC3 expression in knee joint afferents.ResultsOA rats showed not only weight-bearing pain but also mechanical hyperalgesia outside the knee joint (secondary hyperalgesia). ASIC3 expression in knee joint afferents was significantly upregulated approximately twofold at Day 14. Continuous intra-articular injections of APETx2 inhibited weight distribution asymmetry and secondary hyperalgesia by attenuating ASIC3 upregulation in knee joint afferents. Histology of ipsilateral knee joint showed APETx2 worked chondroprotectively if administered in the early, but not late phase.ConclusionsLocal ASIC3 immunoreactive nerve is strongly associated with weight-bearing pain and secondary hyperalgesia in MIA-induced OA model. APETx2 inhibited ASIC3 upregulation in knee joint afferents regardless of the time-point of administration. Furthermore, early administration of APETx2 prevented cartilage damage. APETx2 is a novel, promising drug for OA by relieving pain and inhibiting disease progression.