Blend Ultrafiltration Membranes Research Articles

Comb-shaped amphiphilic triblock copolymers blend PVDF membranes overcome the permeability-selectivity trade-off for protein separation

In order to reduce membrane fouling and fabricate highly selective membranes with high water permeability, three kinds of comb-shaped amphiphilic triblock copolymers, poly[poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate]-b-poly(methyl methacrylate)-b-poly[poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate] (PPEGMA-b-PMMA-b-PPEGMA, named as PEME), were synthesized via RAFT polymerization and used as modifiers to prepare poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) blend membranes by the non-solvent induced phase separation (NIPS) method. The effects of PEME with different hydrophilic PPEGMA length on the surface chemical structure, morphology, permeability and antifouling properties of the blend membranes were investigated detailedly. The results from ATR-FTIR and XPS tests confirmed that hydrophilic PPEGMA segments in PEME were enriched on the membrane surface due to PEME induced surface segregation. With the increase of the hydrophilic chain length in PEME, the mean pore size, porosity and roughness of the blend membrane increased gradually, indicating the modifier had the ability to adjust the membrane pore structure. Compared with pure membrane, the hydrophilicity of blend membranes was enhanced and the protein adsorption of representative bovine serum albumin (BSA) decreased obviously. After three cycles of the water-BSA-water, the M-2 blend membrane exhibited high BSA solution flux (150 L·m−2·h−1), excellent rejection (up to 99.99%) and satisfactory antifouling performance. In addition, compared with the recently published PVDF blend ultrafiltration membranes prepared by NIPS method, the M-2 membrane with surface small pore size, high flux, high selectivity and low fouling properties overcame the permeability-selectivity trade-off for BSA solution separation and showed a good application prospect for efficiently protein separation.

Fabrication of functionalized halloysite nanotube blended ultrafiltration membranes for high flux and fouling resistance

Halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) were functionalized using 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) and incorporated into polyethersulfone (PES) membranes to improve the hydrophilicity of the membranes as well as the interfacial interaction between HNTs and the polymer matrix. The intrinsic properties, permeability, and selectivity of the prepared membranes were analyzed to evaluate the membrane performance. In addition, humic acid (HA) fouling experiments were conducted to measure the antifouling properties of the fabricated membranes. As HNTs and functionalized HNTs (f-HNTs) contents are increased, hydrophilicity and mechanical strength were enhanced, and membranes with f-HNTs showed further improved performance. The pure water flux of membranes with 2% HNTs and f-HNT was 7.5 times higher than that of a pristine PES membrane without a trade-off relation between the water flux and HA rejection. The membranes with f-HNTs showed the highest antifouling properties compared to membranes with HNTs because enhanced hydrophilicity played a key role in preventing accumulation of HA.

Abatement of sulfadiazine in water under a modified ultrafiltration membrane (PVDF-PVP-TiO2-dopamine) filtration-photocatalysis system

The technique of coupling photocatalysis and membrane filtration was applied to the abatement of sulfonamide antibiotics in water. TiO2 photocatalyst has been aroused widespread concern in recent years due to its low price and easy availability. A PVDF-PVP-TiO2-Dopamine blend ultrafiltration membrane (PPTD) was first fabricated in this study and removal of sulfadiazine (SD) in water using a PPTD membrane filtration-photocatalysis system was realized. The addition of PVP-TiO2-Dopamine increased the porosity and average pore size of membranes, resulting in improved hydrophilicity, flux of modified membranes. In pure water, the SD removal efficiency was 91.4% with a first-order rate constant k 0.0216 min−1 under the optimum conditions ([SD]0 = 0.4 µmol/L, UV = 125 µW/cm2, pH = 7.5 ± 0.1, t = 2 h). Water quality parameters (NO3−, Cl−, SO42−, humic acid (HA)) showed quite different effects on SD decontamination. Simulated degradation experiments using real samples demonstrated that PPTD membrane filtration-photocatalysis system has significant potential with regard to controlling SD as pollutants in water. The photocatalytic mechanism characterized using ESR indicated that OH was largely responsible for SD decontamination. The mechanism of the PPTD membrane filtration-photocatalysis system suggests that TiO2-Dopamine could exist synergistically through the bidentate structure or the chelated structure, and that OH, O2−, HO2, H2O2 and 1O2 may be produced in the PPTD membrane filtration-photocatalysis system.

Using the Green Solvent Dimethyl Sulfoxide To Replace Traditional Solvents Partly and Fabricating PVC/PVC-g-PEGMA Blended Ultrafiltration Membranes with High Permeability and Rejection

Traditional solvents are harmful to human health and the environment. Here, we use a green solvent, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), to replace traditional solvents partly as well as improve membrane per...

Hydrophilic and anti-fouling PVDF blend ultrafiltration membranes using polyacryloylmorpholine-based triblock copolymers as amphiphilic modifiers

To fabricate hydrophilic and anti-fouling PVDF ultrafiltration membrane, a kind of tailor-made symmetrical amphiphilic triblock copolymer, polyacryloylmorpholine-b-poly (methyl methacrylate)-b-polyacryloylmorpholine (PACMO-b-PMMA-b-PACMO, termed as PAMA), was prepared via RAFT polymerization and employed as an in situ surface segregation modifier. FTIR, 1H NMR, and GPC were used to verify the well-defined chemical structure of PAMA. The hydrophilic PACMO segments of PAMA were enriched on the surface of membrane skin and interior pores as confirmed by ATR-FTIR, XPS, EDX, and water contact angle tests, endowing the blend membranes with outstanding hydrophilicity. The different cross-sectional and surface morphologies of the PVDF/PAMA blend membranes indicated that the introduction of PAMA modifiers could manipulate membrane structure due to their strong pore-forming ability. Compared with the pure PVDF membrane, PVDF/PAMA blend membranes showed higher permeability for water (28.1 times higher), excellent rejection for bovine serum albumin (up to 98.3%), and enhanced fouling resistance with a higher flux recovery ratio (up to 98.1%). Therefore, the approach of in situ surface segregation employed the RAFT mediated well-defined amphiphilic PAMA triblock copolymer modifiers for the preparation of anti-fouling PVDF membranes showed a great potential in water purification.

Enhanced performance of conductive polysulfone/MWCNT/PANI ultrafiltration membrane in an online fouling monitoring application

Membrane fouling is an inevitable aspect of water treatment that severely limits membrane performance. Therefore, simple and effective membrane fouling monitoring methods are highly sought after to assess the level of fouling before damage occurs or membrane replacement is necessary. Here, conductive blended ultrafiltration (UF) membranes prepared by blending conducting polyaniline (PANI) nanofibers and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) in a polysulfone (PSF) matrix were applied to an online fouling monitoring system. The UF blended membranes with higher porosity and larger pores than the pristine PSF membrane exhibited higher conductivity and water flux (196 L m−2 h−1). An in-house crossflow cell connected to an electrochemical workstation was used to measure the resistance by linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) in order to monitor the fouling process. The blended UF membrane simultaneously achieved a bovine serum albumin (BSA) rejection of 94.2% and a significant resistance drop in response to BSA pollutant caking. It is the first study to monitor fouling using LSV. Exploring the relationship and trends between the permeate flux and membrane resistance provided a theoretical basis for practical applications and enabled online monitoring of the degree of pollution, demonstrating promising potential for industrialization.

MIL-PVDF blend ultrafiltration membranes with ultrahigh MOF loading for simultaneous adsorption and catalytic oxidation of methylene blue.

Multifunctional ultrafiltration membranes need to be further developed with ultrafiltration performance and high multifunctional decontamination efficiency. Here, the MIL-PVDF multifunctional ultrafiltration membrane with ultrahigh MIL loading was demonstrated by a new blending method of predispersion in acetone and thermally induced phase separation. Due to the improved dispersity and restriction of pore size, the MIL-53(Fe) mass loading was as high as approximately 61%. The new membrane showed high performance for methylene blue (MB) removal and maintained high permeability and ultrafiltration efficiency. The characteristics of the membranes were analyzed to explain the above advantages. Meanwhile, compared to the traditional blend ultrafiltration membrane, the 67-MIL-PVDF membrane showed an 9-fold increase in effective treatment volume for more than 75% MB removal. The contribution and efficiency of adsorption and catalytic oxidation were analyzed and explained. The relationship between them was confirmed as being independent, and the reasons for this independence were proposed. Additionally, the mechanism of multifunctional decontamination and permeability by MIL-PVDF membranes was proposed. Moreover, the 67-MIL-PVDF membrane was also suitable for long-term run and real wastewaters treatment. In conclusion, this study sheds new light on the preparation strategy for multifunctional blend ultrafiltration membranes with ultrahigh particles loading displaying high decontamination and permeability performance.

Preparation and characterization of modified ultrafiltration nylon 6 membrane modified by poly (acrylamide-co-maleic anhydride)

In attempt to prepare modified ultrafiltration (UF) Nylon 6 membrane and improve its hydrophilicity and anti-fouling performance, poly (acrylamide-co-maleic anhydride)(AM-MA) was utilized as hydrophilic copolymer additive in the dope solution. The UF Nylon 6/AM-MA membranes were synthesized through blending Nylon 6 with poly(AM-MA) using a phase inversion process. Characterization of the prepared membranes for morphological studies and thermal behavior was carried out by SEM and DSC instruments respectively. The SEM photos demonstrated that by increasing the copolymer density in the dope solution, the morphology was changed from spongy to bi-continuous, composed of small interlocked and stick-like crystallites. FTIR/ATR and water contact angle data also confirmed the existence of AM-MA copolymer on the blend membranes surface. Furthermore, the effect of different molecular weights and concentration of hydrophilic copolymer on filtration performance and antifouling properties were experimentally studied. The results exhibited that the blend UF membranes possessed better water flux permeability than pure Nylon 6 membrane due to the increased surface hydrophilicity and porosity. Fouling resistance experiments revealed that the surface anti-fouling ability of the blend membranes was improved via the addition of AM-MA copolymer with lower MW (co1) to the cast solution, while this parameter was weakened in higher MW of copolymer (co2).

Blended PVC/PVC-g-PEGMA ultrafiltration membranes with enhanced performance and antifouling properties

To improve the performance of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) membranes, we synthesized the amphiphilic copolymer PVC-graft-poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate (PVC-g-PEGMA) via atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). We then fabricated PVC/PVC-g-PEGMA blended ultrafiltration membranes for the first time. The effect of the amount of PVC-g-PEGMA from 5 to 20 wt.% on the PVC membrane properties was systematically investigated. The successful synthesis of PVC-g-PEGMA was confirmed by the results of nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). With the increase in the amount of the PVC-g-PEGMA additive from 0 to 20 wt.%, we found that (1) the surface oxygen content of the membrane increased from 3.20% to 9.31%; (2) the membrane surface pore size and pore density decreased; (3) the hydrophilicity and pure water flux of the membrane improved, but they plateaued, even slightly decreasing after the addition of 15 wt.% PVC-g-PEGMA; (4) the sodium alginate (SA) rejection ratios of all PVC/PVC-g-PEGMA blended membranes were higher than 90%; and (5) all blended PVC membranes exhibited higher flux recovery ratios (FRRs) than the pure PVC membrane; in particular, the FRR increased by 89% when 10 wt.% PVC-g-PEGMA was added. These results indicated the enhanced antifouling properties of PVC/PVC-g-PEGMA blended ultrafiltration membranes.

Separation of heavy metal and protein from wastewater by sulfonated polyphenylsulfone ultrafiltration membrane process prepared by glycine betaine enriched coagulation bath

This work deals with a simple and eco-friendly approach for the development of ultrafiltration membranes for the separation of environmentally hazardous substances from the water source. Polysulfone and sulfonated polyphenylsulfone blend ultrafiltration membranes were fabricated by the non-solvent induced phase inversion technique. Prepared membranes were characterized for their morphology, hydrophilicity, porosity, filtration and antifouling properties. The blend membranes with 15 wt% of sPPSU demonstrated the best performance with water flux of 190.33 Lm−2h−1 and flux recovery ratio of 86.56%. The effect of aq. glycine betaine (GB) coagulation bath on the membrane property and performance was studied and compared with commonly used additives such as NaCl and NMP. The GB in coagulation bath exhibited better flux and performance with protein rejection of 66.3%, 74.0% and 91.2% for trypsin, pepsin, and bovine serum albumin, respectively, and heavy metal rejection of 75.2% and 87.6% for polymer enhanced ultrafiltration of Cd2+ and Pb2+ ions, respectively.

Preparation of high-performance antifouling polyphenylsulfone ultrafiltration membrane by the addition of sulfonated polyaniline

In this work, blend ultrafiltration (UF) membranes were prepared on the basis of polyphenylsulfone (PPSU)/sulfonated polyaniline (SPANI). A synthesis method based on non-solvent induced phase separation (NIPS) with PPSU/SPANI dissolved in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) was proposed. The self-doped SPANI was prepared as zwitterionic polymer to improve the anti-fouling property of PPSU UF membrane. The morphological characteristics and structure of the membranes were observed under a field emission scanning electron microscope. Results revealed that the membranes exhibited a typical asymmetric structure with a dense top layer and a porous structure. The BSA adsorption of the modified membranes was weaker than that of the PPSU membrane. The water permeate fluxes of the prepared membranes were higher than those of the pure PPSU membrane. The PPSU/SPANI membrane showed highly improved water flux, which was almost 2 times higher than that of the PPSU membrane, whereas the rejection of prepared membrane was still maintained at a high level. The bovine serum albumin BSA rejection rate of the membranes decreased from 99% to 96%. The surface hydrophilicity of the static contact angle of the modified membranes increased. The X-ray photoelectron spectra and surface zeta potential of the membranes were also examined. The water flux recovery ratio, total fouling ratio, reversible fouling ratio, and irreversible fouling ratio also enhanced the antifouling property of the modified membranes. The proposed method provides a simple and convenient approach to prepare antifouling UF membranes.

Antimicrobial and pressure resistant polysulfone blended ultrafiltration membranes with core-shell ZnO microspheres

Antimicrobial and pressure resistant polysulfone blended ultrafiltration membranes with core-shell ZnO microspheres

Polyarylsulfone-based blend ultrafiltration membranes with combined size and charge selectivity for protein separation

Current research is actively devoted to the development of high-performance ultrafiltration membranes with high permeability at maximum selectivity for dedicated separations. This work reports the preparation of polymer blend charged ultrafiltration membranes for the improvement of fractionation selectivity. Flat sheet membranes made from polysulfone and various types of sulfonated poly(arylsulfone)s were prepared via non-solvent induced phase separation. Membrane morphology, hydrophilicity and surface charge were assessed by scanning electron microscopy, contact angle and zeta potential measurements, respectively. The separation performances, i.e. selectivity factor, permeability, and permeability recovery, were evaluated by ultrafiltration of model proteins – bovine serum albumin (BSA) and hemoglobin (Hb). Results showed that the membrane charge can be tuned by adjusting the fraction of sulfonated groups via the type of sulfonated polymer in the blend used for membrane preparation. Hence, a broad range of ultrafiltration membranes with different barrier pore sizes, permeability properties and surface charge was established. Pronounced differences between the effects of different types of sulfonated poly(arylsulfone)s at the same degree of sulfonation and mass fraction in the membranes had been found and related to different barrier structures formed during phase separation. Successful separation of protein mixtures was achieved by additionally adjusting filtration parameters. Overall, this work provides guidelines for a versatile and easy method to tailor membrane properties for the selective separation of binary mixtures of biomacromolecules with nearly identical molecular weight and potentially also to solve other separation problems.

Enhanced antifouling and antibacterial properties of poly (ether sulfone) membrane modified through blending with sulfonated poly (aryl ether sulfone) and copper nanoparticles

A series of novel blend ultrafiltration (UF) membranes have been successfully prepared from commercial poly (ether sulfone), lab-synthesized sulfonated poly (aryl ether sulfone) (SPAES, 1wt%) and copper nanoparticles (0∼0.4wt%) via immersion precipitation phase conversion. The micro-structure and separation performance of the membranes were characterized by field emission scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and cross-flow filtration experiments, respectively. Sodium alginate, bovine serum albumin and humic acid were chosen as model organic foulants to investigate the antifouling properties, while E. coil was used to evaluate the antibacterial property of the fabricated membranes. By the incorporation with SPAES and copper nanoparticles, the hydrophilicity, antifouling and antibacterial properties of the modified UF membranes have been profoundly improved. At a copper nanoparticles content of 0.4wt%, the PES/SPAES/nCu(0.4) membrane exhibited a high pure water flux of 193.0kg/m2h, reaching the smallest contact angle of 52°, highest flux recovery ratio of 79% and largest antibacterial rate of 78.9%. Furthermore, the stability of copper nanoparticles inside the membrane matrix was also considerably enhanced, the copper nanoparticles were less than 0.08mg/L in the effluent during the whole operation.

Polyethersulfone – barium chloride blend ultrafiltration membranes for dye removal studies

A series of Polyethersulfone (PES) – barium chloride (BaCl2) blend ultra filtration membrane was developed by varying the BaCl2 concentration in the dope solution. Prepared membranes were subjected to membrane characterization and their performance was studied through dye rejection tests. Morphological studies through SEM and AFM showed that the composite membranes exhibited differences in morphologies, porosities and properties due to the BaCl2 addition as compared with pristine PES membrane. Addition of the inorganic modifier enhanced the hydrophilicity and water permeability of the blend membrane system. Polymer enhanced ultrafiltration of dye solutions showed that the proposed blend system had better performance in terms of flux and rejection efficiency than the pure polymer membrane. The performance of the 2 wt% BaCl2 blend membrane was more promising for application to real time dye wastewater studies.

Anti-organic fouling and anti-biofouling poly(piperazineamide) thin film nanocomposite membranes for low pressure removal of heavy metal ions

Propensity towards anti-organic fouling, anti-biofouling property and low rejection of multivalent cation (monovalent counter ion) restricts the application of the state-of-art poly(piperazineamide) [poly(PIP)] thin film composite (TFC) nanofiltration (NF) membrane for the treatment of water containing toxic heavy metal ions, organic fouling agents and microbes. Herein, we report the preparation of thin film nanocomposite (TFNC) NF membranes with improved heavy metal ions rejection efficacy, anti-biofouling property, and anti-organic fouling properties compared to that of poly(PIP) TFC NF membrane. The TFNC NF membranes were prepared by the interfacial polymerization (IP) between PIP and trimesoyl chloride followed by post-treatment with polyethyleneimine (PEI) or PEI-polyethylene glycol conjugate and then immobilization of Ag NP. The IP was conducted on a polyethersulfone/poly(methyl methacrylate)-co-poly(vinyl pyrollidone)/silver nanoparticle (Ag NP) blend ultrafiltration membrane support. The TFNC membranes exhibited >99% rejection of Pb2+, 91–97% rejection of Cd2+, 90–96% rejection of Co2+ and 95–99% rejection of Cu2+ with permeate flux ∼40Lm−2h−1 at applied pressure 0.5MPa. The improved heavy metal ions rejection efficacy of the modified NF membranes is attributed to the development of positive surface charge as well as lowering of surface pore size compared to that of unmodified poly(PIP) TFC NF membrane.

Preparation and characterization of novel zwitterionic poly(arylene ether sulfone) ultrafiltration membrane with good thermostability and excellent antifouling properties

Zwitterionic poly(arylene ether sulfone) (PAES-NS) was synthesized via copolymerization by using a bisphenol monomer with a pyridine group. The chemical structures of the copolymers were confirmed by using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy; the copolymers showed good thermal stability. A series of polyphenysulfone (PPSU)/PAES-NS blend ultrafiltration (UF) membranes was prepared via conventional immersion precipitation phase inversion methods The morphologies of the modified membranes were investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The surface hydrophilicity of the UF membranes was studied by water contact angle measurement, indicating that the zwitterionic group increased the membrane hydrophilicity. UF of solvated model pollutants using the membranes showed a significant reduction of the irreversible adsorption of the foulants, illustrating the excellent anti-fouling properties of the membrane. The water flux of the PAES-NS membrane was significantly enhanced, being almost three times higher than that of the pristine PPSU membrane, with retention of a high rejection level. After three UF cycles, the water flux recovery of the PAES-NS membrane was as high as 96%.

Effects of amphiphilic pluronic F127 on the performance of PS/SPEEK blend ultrafiltration membrane: Characterization and antifouling study

The effect of amphiphilic Pluronic F127 additive on the ultrafiltration performance of polysulfone (PSf)/sulfonated poly (ether ether ketone) (SPEEK) blend flat sheet membranes was investigated in the present work. Fixed amount of SPEEK was used throughout the experiments to improve the PSf membrane surface performance and permeability properties. The addition of various proportions of Pluronic F127 was used to improve the hydrophilic characteristics of blend PSf/SPEEK membranes. It was found that membranes surface hydrophilicity, surface roughness, equilibrium water content and pores size increased with increasing Pluronic F127 concentration in the blend. The increase of Pluronic F127 additive in the blend changed the membrane morphology from finger-like to sponge-like structure. performance of the membranes were evaluated in terms of pure water, humic acid (HA) and bovine serum albumin (BSA) permeation fluxes which were found to increase with increased Pluronic F127 concentration. The BSA was used as a model foulant to investigate flux rejection and flux recovery ratio (FRR%). The PLU-5.5 membrane achieved the highest BSA rejection (97.55%) with FRR (78.18%) values.

Preparation of PES/SPSf blend ultrafiltration membranes with high performance via H2O-induced gelation phase separation

Polyethersulphone (PES)/sulfonated polysulphone (SPSf) blend ultrafiltration membrane was prepared via non-solvent induced gelation phase separation (NIGPS) using H2O as the non-solvent additive in the casting solution with N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc) as the solvent. An ultrasonic technique was employed to monitor membrane formation so as to provide the quantitative information during the phase separation. The effect of H2O concentration in the PES/SPSf/DMAc casting system on the membrane structure and properties was investigated. Results indicated that the viscosity of the casting solution increased with the increase of H2O content from 3wt% to 9wt% owing to the strong interaction between H2O molecules and the –SO3- group of SPSf chains, finally leading to the gelation of the system. Simultaneously, the microporous structure of the resultant membranes changed gradually into sponge-like structure from macrovoids with the increase of H2O content in the casting solution. It was related to the changes of the phase separation behavior from instantaneous demixing to delay demixing. Specifically, the approaching ratio could be used to predict the behaviors of the instantaneous and delay demixings. Moreover, the pure water flux of PES/SPSf blend membrane obtained under the conditions of polymer concentration 18wt%, PES: SPSf = 84:16wt/wt and 9wt% H2O in the casting solution was up to 858L/m2h. The bovine serum albumin (BSA) rejection was 90.5%.

Amphiphilic ABA‐type triblock copolymers for the development of high‐performance poly(vinylidene fluoride)/poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) blend ultrafiltration membranes for oil separation

ABSTRACTABA‐type amphiphilic triblock copolymers (TBCs) were synthesized by a reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) process with a telechelic polystyrene macro‐RAFT agent and 4‐[n‐(acryloyloxy)alkyloxy]benzoic acid monomers. Ultrafiltration (UF) membranes were fabricated by a phase‐inversion process with blends of the TBC, poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), and poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) (PVP) in dimethylformamide. The UF‐fabricated membranes were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, water contact angle measurement, thermogravimetric analysis, and differential scanning calorimetry. Pure water permeation, molecular weight cutoff values obtained by the permeation of different molecular weight polymers as probe solutes, bovine serum albumin (BSA) solution permeate flux, and oil–water emulsion filtration tests were used to evaluate the separation characteristics of the fabricated membranes. The tripolymer blend membranes exhibited a higher flux recovery ratio (FRR) after the membrane was washed with sodium lauryl sulfate (0.05 wt %) solution for a BSA solution (FRR = 88%) and oil–water emulsion (FRR = 95%) feeds when than the PVDF–PVP blend membrane (57 and 80% FRR values for the BSA solution and oil–water emulsion, respectively). The pendant carboxylic acid functional moieties in this ABA‐type TBC have potential advantages in the fabrication of high‐performance membranes. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2017, 134, 45132.