Black Soldier Fly Research Articles

Introduction Organic waste presents a significant environmental challenge, causing environmental issues, such as landfill accumulation, greenhouse gas emissions, and water pollution. Food leftovers from restaurants, which are rich in fats and other elements, are among the most threatening organic waste materials in Saudi Arabia. This study evaluated the potential of black soldier fly (BSF) larvae, Hermetia illucens, to bioactive post-consumer food leftovers from restaurants into valuable protein-rich feed and organic fertilizer. Methods Three substrates were tested: 100% poultry feed (PF) as a control, 100% food leftovers from restaurants (LF 100%), and a 50:50 mixture of PF and LF (LF 50%). Larval growth performance, survival rate, proximate chemical composition, amino acid content, mineral profile, and toxic elements were assessed, alongside the safety of residual frass. Results Larvae fed the LF 50% achieved the highest growth and survival rates. Both larvae and frass contained essential amino acids and key macro- and micro-minerals, with heavy metal concentrations remaining below hazardous thresholds. The residual frass also showed potential as a plant growth-promoting fertilizer due to its amino acid composition. Therefore, these findings demonstrate that BSF bioconversion is an effective and sustainable approach for valorizing high-fat restaurant waste, an underexplored substrate in the region. Conclusion This study presents insights into the benefits of producing insect protein for feed and nutrient-rich frass, which can support agriculture from high-fat restaurant waste, an underexplored substrate in the region, contribute to food security, and align with environmental objectives under the Saudi Green Initiative. Further research should focus on optimizing the substrates, exploring the long-term applications of BSF larvae frass in agriculture, and scaling up the BSF larvae systems using various waste streams.

Dual application of Spirodela polyrhiza and Lemna minor in sewage phytoremediation and feedstock production for black-soldier fly larvae cultivation: A novel bio-circular system.

Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae accumulate bioactive compounds that modulate antioxidant activity when reared with bioactive agrifood by-products.

Insect-derived chitosan for phosphate recovery and application as a sustainable fertilizer.

Synergistic reshaping of nitrogen flow by black soldier fly and gut ammonia-assimilating bacteria: Green transformation from nitrogenous waste to insect protein

This study evaluated the potential of black soldier fly (BSF; Hermetia illucens) meal as a sustainable protein source in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss; initial average weight of 117.1 g) diets under commercial-like conditions (water temperature of 15 °C). The research focused on assessing the in vitro and in vivo digestibility of essential amino acids and overall growth performance in response to incremental dietary inclusion levels of partially defatted BSF larvae meal (2.5%, 5%, and 10%) as partial replacements for fishmeal. Experimental diets were formulated to be isonitrogenous, isolipidic, and isoenergetic. In vitro assays showed that protein hydrolysis was generally efficient but declined at higher BSF inclusion levels, likely due to the increased chitin content hindering protease activity. In vivo trials demonstrated high apparent digestibility coefficients (ADCs) for the BSF meal, with ADCs for protein and amino acids decreasing at 5% and 10% inclusion levels. A strong positive correlation (r2 = 0.987) was found between in vitro hydrolysis and in vivo protein digestibility. Growth performance, including specific growth rate, protein efficiency ratio, and somatic indices, remained within optimal physiological ranges across all treatments. However, a significant increase in feed conversion ratio was observed at 10% inclusion, potentially linked to reduced methionine availability. The findings validate the nutritional feasibility of using BSF meal up to 10% in rainbow trout diets, aligning with previous experimental-scale trials. While promising, further research is recommended to enhance nutrient bioavailability, particularly of essential amino acids, to support wider adoption in aquaculture systems.

Synergistic mechanism of tetracycline degradation by poor-degrading microbe Serratia marcescens cooperated with insect during environmental decomposition cycle.

29. Evaluating the use of black soldier fly larvae oil as a replacement for zinc oxide in weaner pig diets

The use of insects for feed has a significant impact on aquaculture, contributing to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goal of Zero Hunger and Sustainable Agriculture (SDG 2), among others. This study mapped the intermediate Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs), encompassing scientific knowledge (TRL 3) through 971 scientific articles (Scopus) and technological development (TRLs 4–5) through 218 patents (Espacenet). The highest conversions from TRL 3 to TRLs 4–5 were observed for fish, mollusks, crustaceans, and annelids. Key technological targets include carp and black soldier flies (BSF). Most technologies follow circular economy principles. Emerging themes include immunity, cloning, molecular techniques, metabolomics, and genetics. China leads in TRLs 3–5, followed by the United States. Only France, the United States, and five additional countries hold export-oriented patents targeting 26 markets, primarily involving BSF-based feed formulations. Future growth trends are exponential for scientific articles, logarithmic for total patents, and linear for export patents. Collaboration at TRLs 4–5 remains limited, underscoring the need for greater international cooperation to expand access to sustainable insect-based aquaculture feed technologies.

This study aims to develop the Agro-Aquaseloka model as an integrated system linking agriculture, aquaculture, and organic waste management through a circular economy approach in Panti Village, Jember Regency. The research employed a mixed-methods design with a Community-Based Participatory Research (CBPR) framework, involving local communities as active partners in all phases. Results indicate that training in Black Soldier Fly (BSF) maggot cultivation enhanced participants’ technical skills in converting organic waste into fish feed and organic fertilizer. The program reduced fish feed costs by up to 50% and improved profitability with a benefit-cost ratio (R/C) exceeding 1.3. It also decreased household waste volume by around 20% and reduced open burning practices. The establishment of the “Aguaseloka Farmer Group” strengthened local institutions and program sustainability. The model effectively promotes rural green economy development and supports Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 1, 2, 8, 12, and 13).

Maintaining optimal microclimate conditions is essential for Black Soldier Fly (BSF) cultivation, yet traditional systems often struggle with dynamic environmental changes. This study proposes the Vector Autoregressive-Fuzzy Inference System (VARFIS), a hybrid model combining Vector Autoregression (VAR) and Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS), to enhance temperature and humidity control in BSF insectariums. VARFIS adapts to uncertainty using probabilistic learning, achieving a 48% reduction in prediction error (MAPE = 1.36%) and high accuracy (R² = 0.9695), outperforming standalone VAR and ANFIS models. The model effectively captures daily climate fluctuations, improving larval growth efficiency and waste conversion. However, it remains limited in handling extreme events such as sudden heatwaves or humidity spikes, indicating the need for enhancements like adaptive fuzzy rule tuning and integration of physical constraints. VARFIS presents a scalable solution for intelligent microclimate management, supporting sustainable insect farming and circular economy goals. This work contributes to precision agriculture by offering data-driven tools for resilient environmental control.

The drastic increase in the volume of organic waste is an unavoidable consequence of population growth and rapid development, both in rural and urban areas. This condition is exacerbated by urbanization and rising living standards, which are directly correlated with an increase in per capita waste production. The phenomenon of urbanization, particularly in Indonesia, has led to a concentration of population in urban areas, which in turn has resulted in a rapid increase in waste generation. Existing management capacity is often inadequate to handle this ever-increasing volume of waste, leading to serious accumulation and environmental pollution. Islamic boarding schools, as Islamic educational institutions, have great potential for managing the environment based on a circular economy. This institution, with its values of independence and togetherness, has strong social capital to initiate and implement sustainable waste management practices integrated with circular economy principles, as demonstrated in several community-based programs. Various initiatives have proven that pesantren are capable of developing independent business units thru waste utilization, for example, in the innovation of organic fertilizer from livestock manure. This community service program was conducted at the Ulumul Qur'an Islamic Boarding School in Stabat, Langkat Regency, with the aim of optimizing organic waste management thru the cultivation of Black Soldier Fly (BSF) or maggots as an environmentally friendly solution and an entrepreneurial opportunity for students. The methods used included socialization, technical training, and the Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) approach to encourage active student involvement. The results of the activity showed an increase in students' understanding of organic waste management, the utilization of boarding school land for maggot cultivation, and the development of environmentally based entrepreneurial skills. This program not only reduces the volume of organic waste but also produces economically valuable alternative feed that can support agriculture and livestock farming. Thus, this activity contributes to the creation of a sustainable waste management system in pesantren while also supporting the economic empowerment of students.

ABSTRACT Pupation is a critical developmental stage for Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) (black soldier fly, BSF) in mass‐rearing systems, directly influencing adult emergence and reproductive output. This study evaluated six substrate types (sand, wood shavings, topsoil, vermiculite, spent larval substrate, and potting soil) to assess the effects of moisture level and compaction on pupation success, adult emergence, and mortality. Substrate performance varied according to physical properties, including dry matter content, bulk density, and water‐holding capacity. Moist substrates consistently outperformed dry ones, with optimal pupation observed at 10% moisture. Although adult emergence was highest at 40% moisture, elevated moisture levels increased the risk of mold formation in some substrates. In general, 10% moisture achieved not only high percentages of pupation and adults but also reduced mortality while avoiding the risk of mold growth. Mild compaction had no adverse effects on larval development or emergence, suggesting that moderately compacted substrates could be reused to enhance cost efficiency in production systems. Among all tested materials, spent larval substrate emerged as the most practical and economical option due to its availability and effectiveness.

To advance sustainable swine manure management through insect-mediated bioconversion, this study implemented a comparative evaluation of the flesh fly Boettcherisca peregrina (Robineau-Desvoidy) (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) and the blow fly Aldrichina grahami (Aldrich) (Diptera: Calliphoridae). We quantified: (i) larval viability and bioconversion efficiency under manure-fed conditions, (ii) nutritional profiles and heavy metal accumulation in larval biomass, and (iii) agronomic value and residual heavy metal speciation of processed residues. B. peregrina exhibited higher adaptability, achieving a 95% survival rate and maximum biomass within 72 h, achieving a 35.6% swine manure mass reduction, slightly outperforming A. grahami (34.3% over 84 h). Both species produced nutrient-dense larvae (56.2% to 56.4% crude protein, 24.5% to 25.2% lipid) and pupae (61.3% to 63.8% protein, 18.4% to 19.1% lipid), with balanced essential amino acid profiles suitable for animal feed. However, arsenic accumulation in larvae approached EU feed safety limits, highlighting the need for substrate optimization. Processed residues showed enhanced agronomic value, with available phosphorus increasing by 24% to 29%, while most heavy metals remained below phytotoxic thresholds; however, chromium approximately doubled after bioconversion. From an application perspective, the short development time (3 to 5 d) and relatively high conversion efficiency of both species suggest economic advantages over longer-cycle insects such as black soldier fly, although successful scale-up will require careful management of substrate variability, biosecurity, and trace-metal risks. Overall, these findings identify B. peregrina and A. grahami as promising candidates for circular agriculture systems.

Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L., Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae (BSFL) farming offers a dual solution for Africa by converting organic waste into nutrient-rich protein for animal feed and organic fertiliser (frass), addressing urban waste challenges and reducing reliance on unsustainable imports, such as fishmeal. However, realising these potential hinges on developing safe, efficient, scalable, and economically viable processing methods suitable for African conditions. A comprehensive literature search was conducted across academic databases (Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science) using keywords such as "black soldier fly larvae processing," "nutritional composition," and "antimicrobial properties." Peer-reviewed studies, technical reports, and conference papers were included to assess the impacts of harvesting, decontamination, drying, and nutrition. Optimising key steps is essential: robust harvesting (sieving or auto-collection depending on larval stage, substrate humidity, and particle size), effective microbial reduction via post-harvest processing (feed withdrawal, washing protocols needing refinement, especially for contaminated waste), killing methods (freezing, blanching, asphyxiation, mechanical disruption, each impacting nutritional quality, microbial safety, and animal welfare differently), and decontamination. Drying methods (low-temperature air, high-temperature air, oven, microwave, and freeze-drying) significantly influence the final product's safety, nutritional retention, and economic viability, involving trade-offs between speed, energy efficiency, protein and fat preservation, and cost. The nutritional composition of BSFL (protein: 27.54-55.42%, fat: 8.10-57.80%, ash: 3.90-33.0%, chitin: 3.87-9.62%) and functional properties (antimicrobial peptides, lauric acid; up to 52% of lipids) are highly variable, primarily dictated by the rearing substrate. This offers opportunities for tailored production but requires strict control of substrate safety to avoid heavy metal accumulation. Processing choices also directly impact protein digestibility and amino acid profiles. Optimising these processing parameters is fundamental to ensuring a safe, nutritious, and stable insect meal that meets regulatory standards, reduces post-harvest losses, improves economic viability for small-scale farmers, and unlocks the role of BSFL in circular economies, food security, waste management, and climate-resilient agriculture across Africa.

Organic Waste Recycling by Black Soldier Fly Larvae: Environmental Benefits Beyond Waste Minimization

This study discusses the implementation of the PELIKAS Program (Utilization of Organic Waste for Social Independence) as a form of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) for PT Pertamina Patra Niaga Integrated Terminal Pangkalbalam in Bukit Besar Village, Pangkalpinang City. The background of this program is the increasing volume of household organic waste, the limited capacity of the Final Disposal Site (TPA), and the high unemployment rate of the community. Through a community development approach, this program integrates organic waste management with community economic empowerment, especially farmer women groups (KWT), through the cultivation of Black Soldier Flies (BSF) or maggot larvae. The research uses a descriptive qualitative method with interview, observation, and documentation techniques. The results of the study show that the PELIKAS program has a positive impact on three main aspects: (1) the environment, by reducing the volume of organic waste and increasing soil fertility with kasgot; (2) social, through increasing community participation and solidarity, as well as the distribution of crops to vulnerable groups; and (3) the economy, by increasing the income of KWT members and developing products with selling value such as organic fertilizers and processed foods. However, challenges remain in terms of institutional and financial sustainability. The conclusion of this study confirms that PELIKAS is a CSR model based on community empowerment that is effective and can be replicated in other regions to support the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) related to the environment, food security, and economic equality.

The growing need for sustainable protein and functional food ingredients has made edible insects stand out as a flexible source of bioactives. Black Soldier Fly larva (BSFL) bioactives, such as chitooligosaccharides (COSs) and peptides, present potential benefits for gut health; nevertheless, their molecular pathways, clinical validation, and commercial scalability have yet to be thoroughly investigated. This study systematically analyzes current progress in BSFL bioactive extraction and characterization, emphasizing enzymatic and thermal processing, controlled enzyme development, and integrated supercritical fluid enzymatic pipelines. We assess preclinical and animal research that illustrates prebiotic modulation of Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, and Faecalibacterium populations; antimicrobial peptide-mediated immune signaling; and antioxidant activity. Multi-omics frameworks that connect the microbial metabolism of COS to gut health help us understand how these processes function. A comparison of the regulatory environments for food and feed applications in the EU, North America, and Asia shows that there are gaps in human safety trials, harmonized standards, and techno-economic assessments. Finally, we suggest some next steps: randomized controlled human trials in groups with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and metabolic syndrome; standardized data integration pipelines for multi-omics; and life cycle and cost–benefit analyses of modular, vertically integrated BSFL biorefineries with AI-driven reactors, digital twins, and blockchain traceability. Addressing these issues will hasten the conversion of BSFL bioactives into safe, effective, and sustainable functional meals and nutraceuticals.

There is an energy deficiency during the later stage of embryonic development, as the metabolic demands show an “explosive increase”. Vegetable oils are already used for in ovo feeding in poultry to provide energy for the embryos. What would be the effectiveness of animal oils used as alternative energy sources for the chicken embryo? To find out more, BSF larvae oil was used for in ovo feeding of the chicken embryo in this study. A total of 2300 Arbor Acres chicken eggs were used for incubation. On the tenth day of incubation, 2268 eggs were selected after candling and then divided into three groups for in ovo feeding in the yolk sac on the 11th, 14th, and 17th days of incubation. Each group was divided into seven lots, such as CON−, CON+, L0.1, L0.2, L0.3, L0.4, and L0.5. The CON− and CON+ were not injected. L0.1, L0.2, L0.3, L0.4, and L0.5 were pierced and then received the injection of 0.1 mL, 0.2 mL, 0.3 mL, 0.4 mL, and 0.5 mL of BSF maggot oil per egg, respectively. After hatching, 48 chicks from each lot of each group were housed in cages and then fed the same diet for six weeks. A better hatch rate and growth performance were observed for lots L0.1 and L0.2 compared to the other lots on the 14th and 17th days of incubation (p < 0.05). The injected lots showed reduced levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (p < 0.05). The injection of 0.1 mL BSF maggot oil on the 17th day of incubation had 0% embryonic mortality and 100% hatching success. In conclusion, BSF larvae oil can be used as an energy source for in ovo injection, with a dose of 0.1 mL on the 17th day of incubation being most effective and recommended.

Abstract In recent decades, interest has grown in utilising black soldier fly ( Hermetia illucens ) larvae (BSFL) to bioconvert organic waste streams into valuable products such as animal feed and fertilisers. However, there are still gaps in knowledge regarding the nutritional components and environmental conditions required to effectively harness BSFL for processing diverse, often non-optimal, organic waste streams. The objective of our study was to characterise key nutritional and environmental limitations affecting BSFL cultivation, with relevance to future use under low-input or challenging conditions. We formulated iso-caloric artificial diets, systematically varying one component at a time (i.e. protein, carbohydrates, fats, fibres, and calories) to establish their impact on BSFL growth, development rate, and biomass yield. Additionally, environmental parameters, including temperature, substrate moisture, pH, concentration of bulking agents, and presence of common agricultural waste chemicals (NaCl, NaOCl, NH 4 + ) were evaluated for their effects on larval performance. Our findings indicate that optimal BSFL development occurs within defined nutritional and environmental ranges: dietary protein levels of ≥10%, digestible energy ranging from 239–340 calories per 100 g, substrate moisture above 60% and below a well-drained, saturated state (without free water), and temperatures between 26–40 °C. Growth rates declined under suboptimal nutrient conditions, temperature extremes, drought or water saturation, and high concentrations of agricultural chemicals; NaCl (>5.5%) and NH 4 + (>1.25%) were particularly fatal. This research underscores the potential of BSFL for effectively valorising low-quality agricultural waste, offering clear guidelines for dietary optimisation and improved waste management practices.