Black Mothers Research Articles

Postpartum sleep and relationship satisfaction among Black mothers.

Sleep difficulties for parents and infants in the first months postpartum are common and are likely to impact multiple areas of life, including parents' romantic relationship satisfaction. Empirical literature linking different indicators of sleep in the first months postpartum to concurrent and prospective relationship satisfaction is limited, however, particularly among families who experience disproportionately elevated rates of sleep difficulties postpartum. To address this gap, we examined multiple indicators of subjective and objective maternal sleep and maternal reports of infant sleep as predictors of relationship satisfaction among a sample of first-time Black mothers in relationships (N = 107). At 8 weeks postpartum, mothers reported on their own sleep difficulties and on their infant's nighttime awakenings and time in bed, and they wore an accelerometer to provide estimates of total sleep time and sleep efficiency. Mothers reported their relationship satisfaction at 8 and 16 weeks postpartum. Results indicated that mothers who reported that their own sleep difficulties were more impactful to their functioning at Week 8 reported lower relationship satisfaction at Week 16. Additionally, mothers who had longer nighttime sleep reported higher relationship satisfaction at both Week 8 and 16 postpartum. Infant sleep was not significantly associated with relationship satisfaction. These findings offer new insights into associations between sleep and relationship satisfaction during a critical period of adjustment for families and can inform interventions to enhance individual and relational well-being for new parents. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

The Long Arm of Stress and Strength: Poverty, Religious Attendance, and Black Mothers’ Parent–Child Relationships Over Time

Positive mother–child relationships are essential for nurturing healthy family dynamics and promoting the well-being of both parents and children. These relationships are intertwined with broader social contexts and external factors. Using longitudinal data, we address the following questions: What are the group-based trajectories for poverty and religious service attendance among Black mothers during the first 15 years after childbirth? What are the factors associated with these group-based patterns? What are the relative associations of poverty and religious service attendance trajectories on Black mothers’ relationships with their children? Our findings revealed that (1) poverty levels reflect both stability and change, while religious attendance remained relatively stable and (2) religious service attendance was more strongly associated with higher levels of mother–child relationships than poverty was with lower levels. These results suggest that religious attendance is more likely to bring mothers and children together than poverty is to drive them apart.

Narratives of black mothers: Experiences in advocating for mathematical success in public education

This study employs an analysis of narratives method with interviews of three Black mothers whose children participate in a United States university-based Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) program. The findings reveal three themes that are as follows: Black mothers are (1) deeply committed to their children’s mathematics learning; (2) encounter epistemological barriers rooted in educational terminology; and (3) face systemic challenges advocating for advanced math placement and special education accommodations. While prior research has acknowledged racial disparities in education, this work demonstrates the role of Black mothers in dismantling discriminatory gatekeeping in educational pathways. The study highlights systemic barriers and the resilience of Black mothers in advocating for their children’s mathematical success, which can provide actionable insights for educators to improve transparency and equitable communication.

Maternal reflective functioning in pregnancy and parenting during the preschool period.

Parental reflective functioning (PRF) refers to a parent's ability to understand their own and their child's mental states and connect them to behaviors. This longitudinal study evaluated (1) associations among prenatal PRF, using the Pregnancy Interview, demographics, prenatal maternal depressive symptoms, and maternal-fetal attachment and (2) whether prenatal PRF predicted parenting quality assessed during unstructured and challenging mother-child interaction tasks beyond infancy, after controlling for cumulative risk. Data were collected in an urban community sample of women in the midwestern US. Prenatal PRF was positively associated with maternal educational attainment and negatively associated with cumulative demographic risk, but not with depressive symptoms or maternal-fetal attachment. Controlling for cumulative risk, hierarchical regressions showed that prenatal PRF was the sole significant predictor of positive parenting at 36 months, observed during a challenging teaching task but not during free play. Prenatal PRF did not predict negative parenting. These patterns persisted when analyses were repeated within a subsample of Black mothers, with PRF again being the sole significant predictor of positive parenting. Further attention to cultural variations in PRF and parenting in future research is warranted.

Trends in Mothers' Work Schedules in the United States, 1988-2019: Differences by Education, Family Structure, and Race and Ethnicity.

The latter half of the twentieth century saw dramatic increases in mothers' labor force participation rates, accompanied by declining job quality and increasing labor market inequality. Despite evidence of growing labor market inequality in wages and benefits, less is known about how job quality changed with respect to work schedules. This study tests the hypothesis that mothers' employment in jobs with nonstandard schedules increased between 1988 and 2019 and that such schedules are increasingly concentrated among mothers with lower education levels, single mothers, and mothers of color, who are overrepresented in low-wage jobs. We find that mothers' employment in jobs with nonstandard schedules stayed relatively flat at 15% to 16%, and the prevalence of weekend work increased from 15% to 18%. Moreover, we find growing disparities in who works nonstandard schedules. The propensity to work such schedules increased among mothers with less than a college degree, single mothers living without other adults, and Black mothers relative to mothers with a college degree, married mothers, and White mothers, respectively. Additionally, mothers are more likely to work nonstandard schedules for involuntary reasons than before the Great Recession.

Speaking in Metaphors: Exploring Black Women’s Communicated Sense-Making of Postpartum Depression

ABSTRACT Guided by the communicated sense-making model, we describe the results of an analysis of interviews with 15 Black women about their experiences with postpartum depression (PPD). The findings indicate that the women made sense of their experience using three categories of metaphors: (1) mobility, (2) cultural expectations, and (3) social support. These categories of metaphors provide evidence that the discourse of motherhood as distressing is expressed in the narratives of Black women with PPD, even as they seek to fulfill the demands of the discourse of motherhood as intensive. The metaphors also reveal that Black mothers with PPD struggle with the cultural pressure placed on them to act as a strong Black woman/mother. As a result, the participants demonstrate that cultural expectations expressed by their social network add to the motherhood as distressing discourse. Finally, the study makes an argument for the inclusion of metaphors as a viable and supporting device in the communicated sense-making model. Implications for practical and future applications are presented.

Mandated Reporting and Child Welfare Surveillance: Protection or Subordination

With increasing attention to racism embedded in child protective services (CPS) in the United States, mandated reporting laws remain entrenched in historically racist systems and policies. The potential biases of mandated reporters coupled with their failure to consider the sociopolitical and socioeconomic contexts of Black families continue to shape decisions to report and investigate families for possible child abuse and neglect. Black parents avoid interacting with people compelled to report out of an abundance of caution, the threat of professional penalties, or inattention to biases. Employing mixed methods, this phenomenological study design elicited the lived experiences of Black mothers impacted by CPS in the United States. Participants completed a qualitative, voice-recorded electronic survey about the impact of surveillance related to child neglect. Deductive analyses resulted in identified themes related to the impact of mandated reporting.

COVID-19 Pandemic-Era Changes in Sudden Unexpected Infant Death in the United States

OBJECTIVE To investigate COVID-19 pandemic-era changes in post-perinatal sudden unexpected infant death (SUID) and their association with maternal sociodemographic factors. METHODS We conducted a nationwide cohort study using CDC National Center for Health Statistics data for US births from 2016 to 2021. SUID cases were identified using ICD-10 codes R95, R99, and W75; we defined pandemic-era births as those between April 2020 and December 2021. We compared post-perinatal SUID rates before and during the pandemic and conducted counterfactual analyses to identify whether the pandemic was associated with changes in SUID rate trends. Analyses were stratified by maternal race and ethnicity, age, education, and insurance status. RESULTS Overall post-perinatal SUID rates increased from 87.6 per 100,000 births pre-pandemic to 95.3 after pandemic onset (rate difference: 7.7, 95% CI: 4.9-10.5). Significant rate increases were found among infants born to non-Hispanic Black mothers, younger mothers, mothers with lower educational attainment, and Medicaid recipients. Counterfactual analyses showed higher-than-expected pandemic-era rates for these groups, and additionally infants born to non-Hispanic White mothers and mothers with private insurance. Only 0.86% of pandemic-era SUID cases included COVID-19 as an additional cause of death. CONCLUSION Post-perinatal SUID rates increased after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, with the largest increases in sociodemographic groups already at high risk for SUID. Secondary effects of the pandemic, rather than direct viral impact, may have contributed to the rise in SUID rates. The study underscores the need for further research to pinpoint specific factors and develop interventions to mitigate these increases.

Trends in the Prevalence of Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21) in Texas by Maternal Race/Ethnicity and Maternal Age Groups, 1999-2020.

Down syndrome (DS) is a common chromosomal aneuploidy characterized by intellectual disability. Older maternal age is the strongest known risk factor for DS. The purpose of this study was to describe DS prevalence among major racial/ethnic groups stratified by maternal age, and to assess trends in prevalence over time in Texas. Cases with DS diagnoses delivered between 1999 and 2020 were identified from the Texas Birth Defects Registry (TBDR). Birth prevalence and crude prevalence ratios (PRs) by maternal race/ethnicity, maternal education, residence along the Texas-Mexico border, and Texas public health region (PHR) were calculated. Trends over time were assessed using Joinpoint. DS prevalence was significantly lower among mothers < 35 years compared to those 35+ years. Hispanic mothers, mothers with less than high school education, and mothers residing along the Texas-Mexico border had consistently higher PRs. Joinpoint analyses revealed significant increases in DS prevalence over time among non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic mothers. These findings identified significant increases in DS prevalence among non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic mothers compared to non-Hispanic White mothers, suggesting a potential widening of racial/ethnic differences in DS occurrence. Further research is needed to explore underlying drivers of these trends and to address differences in DS prevalence.

Examining breastfeeding self-efficacy as a mediator between maternal food insecurity and breastfeeding practices in Soweto, South Africa

Objectives: This study examined the potential mediating effect of breastfeeding self-efficacy on the relationship between maternal food insecurity and breastfeeding status. Design: A community-based, cross-sectional study was conducted. Subjects and setting: The study included 197 mothers from Soweto, South Africa, with infants under one month old, enrolled in the PLAY Love And You (PLAY) Study. Outcome measures: Data were collected via self-report questionnaires post-delivery, including maternal sociodemographic characteristics, breastfeeding status, food insecurity, and breastfeeding self-efficacy. Generalised Structural Equation Modelling assessed whether maternal food insecurity was associated with breastfeeding status and whether this was mediated by breastfeeding self-efficacy, adjusting for sociodemographic confounders. Results: Notably, 74% of mothers initiated breastfeeding within the first hour, and 87% were currently breastfeeding. No significant associations were found between maternal food insecurity and breastfeeding status, nor did breastfeeding self-efficacy mediate these relationships. However, early initiation of breastfeeding (β = 1.14, p = 0.03) and relationship status (β = −0.53, p = 0.002) emerged as critical factors associated with breastfeeding status and self-efficacy. Mothers who initiated breastfeeding within the first hour were significantly more likely to continue breastfeeding (p = 0.01), and currently breastfeeding mothers had higher self-efficacy scores (p = 0.01). Conclusions: The study found no significant mediating effect of breastfeeding self-efficacy on the relationship between maternal food insecurity and breastfeeding status among urban Black South African mothers. These findings underscore the need to address broader determinants of food security and maternal confidence, while future research should explore additional psychological and social factors for effective interventions. Trial registration: Pan African Clinical Trial Registry identifier: PACTR202202747620052.

We hold these truths?: An examination of teaching about gender and race with historical biographies

Scholarly and popular attention about Elizabeth Jennings’ ejection from a segregated streetcar in 1854 and her subsequent lawsuit in 1855 has grown in recent years. Museum exhibits, curricular materials, children’s literature, and biographies focus on her lawsuit challenging racial segregation in the antebellum north. However, many of these biographies focus only on this ordeal, which leaves the fuller picture of the significance of Elizabeth Jennings’ life as a Black woman, wife, mother, daughter, educator and activist are largely unacknowledged. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to provide teachers with a process in how to conduct a content analysis to examine depictions of matters such as race and gender in historical biographies about Elizabeth Jennings. Additionally, I show how the findings of a content analysis of depictions about Elizabeth Jennings in three biographies can be leveraged to create inquiry-based lessons, modeled around the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework, to engage students in meaningful analysis of intersectionality and truth telling in historical biographies that are often used for elementary and middle school social studies instruction.

Maternal childhood adversity accelerates epigenetic aging of children.

Although early adversity is strongly related to lifelong health disparities, it is unclear how adversity might confer risk across generations. To investigate, we tested the hypothesis that mothers' childhood adversity was associated with their epigenetic aging and that of their children and examined whether associations differed for Black and White mothers. Dyads (N = 215) of mothers (52% White, 48% Black, Mage = 39.2, SD = 1.1) and children (N = 215, 55% female, Mage = 8.3, SD = 4.0, range 2-17) provided saliva samples to assay the Horvath clock and pace of aging calculated from the epigenome epigenetic aging measures. Linear regressions were used to estimate the associations of maternal early adversity measures with the outcomes of maternal and child Horvath clock epigenetic age, as moderated by race. For Black, but not White mothers, any abuse before age 13, b = 0.81, p = .007, physical abuse before age 18, b = 1.69, p = .001, and sexual abuse before age 18, b = 1.17, p = .02, were associated with significantly greater Horvath age acceleration in their children. In contrast, there was no relation between maternal childhood adversity and mothers' epigenetic aging, and no significant findings for the pace of aging calculated from the epigenome. Maternal childhood adversity appears to have a greater effect on the epigenetic aging of the children of Black mothers. The effects of systemic racism on Black Americans may interact with maternal childhood adversity to confer additional risk for Black children. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

Factors that Contribute to Neonatal Mortality at a Community Hospital.

The prevalence of intrauterine fetal demise (IUFD) in the United States is 5.74 per 1000 live births. In Maryland, the prevalence is 6.75 per 1000 and occurs nearly twice as frequently in Black than in white populations. At MedStar Franklin Square Medical Center (MFSMC), Electronic Medical Records (EMR) show that IUFDs are 2.5 times greater in Black than white women. This analysis aims to identify factors that contribute to this health disparity. We performed a retrospective chart review of deliveries at MFSMC between 2018 and 2020. Literature-supported variables were collected for all pregnancies that ended in IUFD. Using logistic regression models, these factors were analyzed to isolate predictors for IUFD and association with race. The same predictors were compared to those of women who delivered live infants during this period. Without adjustment, the odds of having an IUFD are 2.21 times higher for Black mothers than for white mothers at MFSMC. No other unadjusted odds ratios between comorbid risk factors and the chance of IUFD were significant. After adjusting for diabetes, growth restriction, substance abuse, and hypertension, the odds of having an IUFD are 2.31 times higher for Black than white mothers. Black mothers experience increased risk for IUFD, after controlling for other pertinent factors. This disparity should be addressed by reducing healthcare provider bias, increasing maternal health services, and providing comprehensive patient education.

The freedom to mentalize: The influence of socio-demographic indicators of empowerment on parental reflective functioning.

Parental reflective functioning (PRF), a critical construct in the field of infant mental health, has been under investigated in non-WEIRD countries, where the majority of the world's infants are born. Studies from WEIRD contexts have demonstrated a relationship between socio-demographic and parental reflective functioning scores. This study used a mixed-methods concurrent exploratory research design to investigate relationships between socio-demographic factors and parental reflective functioning in a cohort of Black mothers living in Alexandra Township, South Africa. The study found relationships between parental reflective functioning and both abuse disclosure and father involvement in unexpected directions. Qualitative analysis of interview transcripts and intervention case notes highlighted the potential role of empowerment in the participants PRF scores. The findings highlight the central importance of considering the influence of power dynamics and social positioning when measuring parental reflective functioning for both research and clinical purposes.

Culture and Behaviour Management of Children in the Dental Clinic: A Scoping Review.

Cultural norms, beliefs, and practices influence parental expectations, children's responses, and the acceptance of behaviour management techniques (BMTs) in paediatric dentistry. Despite this, the existing guidelines often adopt a standardized approach, overlooking critical cultural differences. This scoping review maps the links between culture and behaviour management strategies in paediatric dental settings. A scoping review following PRISMA guidelines was conducted across PubMed, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and hand-searched sources from the inception of the databases to 31 January 2025. A total of 671 studies were identified, with 15 meeting the inclusion criteria. Data on the key findings were inductively analyzed to assess cultural influences on parental acceptance, child behavior, and communication. The findings show that non-invasive BMTs such as TellShow-Do and positive reinforcement were the most accepted across cultures, while passive and active restraints were least accepted, especially in Western populations. Parental preferences varied; Jordanian parents were more accepting of passive restraint than German parents, while general anaesthesia was preferred in Bahrain. Cultural norms shaped communication styles-Latino families emphasized warm interpersonal interactions, whereas Pakistani families exhibited limited parental involvement due to language barriers. Black and Hispanic Medicaid-enrolled mothers in the U.S. reported lower satisfaction with pain management, highlighting disparities in culturally competent care. In conclusion, cultural factors significantly influence paediatric behaviour management in dental clinics. Integrating cultural competence into practice can enhance communication, improve patient compliance, and promote equitable care. Further research is needed, particularly in Africa and South America, to inform globally inclusive behaviour management guidelines.

Race and neoliberal citizenship in the construction of good (attachment) parents: Parenting Culture Studies and beyond

In this article, we offer one example of what attending to race can bring to sociological analyses of parenting. We draw on literature from two fields, Parenting Culture Studies and Black Feminist scholarship, to bring their insights to bear on a project that examines black mothers’ engagements with attachment parenting. In addressing an analytical lacuna in the work on Parenting Culture Studies, we argue that efforts to both embody and produce good citizens are gendered, classed and raced . This is revealed by examining notions of good parenting from the perspective of black parents. As such, in this article, we show the value of applying an intersectional framework to analyses of contemporary parenting and neoliberal subjectification, in elucidating the mechanisms by which ideals of both parenting and neoliberal citizenship are perpetuated.

Maternity Care Practices and Their Role in U.S. Breastfeeding Disparities.

Introduction: Breastfeeding provides substantial health benefits for both children and mothers; yet the U.S. rates remain suboptimal, with disparities shaped by structural, social, and policy factors. This study examines how the U.S. hospital maternity care practices influence breastfeeding initiation, with particular attention to their impact across different population groups. Methods: We analyzed cross-sectional county-level variations in hospital maternity care quality and breastfeeding initiation from 2017 to 2022 using data from the National Vital Statistics System and the Maternity Practices in Infant Nutrition and Care (mPINC) surveys. We employed a linear probability model to assess these relationships. Results: Higher county mPINC scores are significantly associated with increased breastfeeding initiation, with each additional point linked to a 0.10 percentage point (pp) increase (p < 0.001). This association varies by race/ethnicity. Each additional mPINC point corresponds to a 0.25 pp increase for non-Hispanic Black mothers (p < 0.001) and a 0.14 pp increase for non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Native mothers (p < 0.001), approximately three and two times higher, respectively, than the increase for non-Hispanic White mothers. The effect of better maternity practices also differs by county type, with a 0.08 pp increase in metro areas (p < 0.001) and a 0.17 pp increase in nonmetro areas (p < 0.001). Conclusions: Higher quality hospital maternity care practices are associated with increased breastfeeding initiation, particularly among population groups with historically lower breastfeeding rates. Enhancing maternity care policies and practices may help reduce long-standing breastfeeding disparities.

The De/Construction of Identity: The Complexities of Loss and Separation for Mixed-Race Britain

In the 2017 Danzy Senna novel, New People, the mixed-race protagonist is described as a white ‘passing’ mixed-race woman who interprets the death of her adopted Black mother as a symbol of the death of her Black identity. The book’s themes parallel ongoing multiracial political debates that explore the extent to which mixed-race people with proximity to whiteness perceive individual agency in identity negotiations. This paper examines how mixed-race people in Britain discuss the experience of loss and separation, thereby demonstrating how loss and separation interact with their sense of self. Employing a content and thematic analysis of 19 stories from the British-based organisation Mixedracefaces, my findings show that the mixed-race respondents saw their racially marginalised family members as critical connections to their own. Thus, a process of identity de/construction was instigated when they experienced a loss that perpetuated and/or challenged monoracism. I argue that we must disrupt oppressive monoracial paradigms of ‘race’ that uphold monoracial whiteness and prevent mixed-race identity agency. Through mixed-race counterstories, we can reveal further generational histories of struggles, resistance, love, and refusal in Britain. I intentionally provide a safe space for the millions of mixed people looking for connection through this experience.

Black Low-Income Mothers’ Experiences With a Local Peer Support Group: A Qualitative Exploration

Maternal empowerment, particularly by enhancing resourcefulness and support systems, has emerged as a promising approach to address inequities. The aim of this study was to explore the lived experiences of Black low-income women during the postpartum period and the interplay between cultural context, resourcefulness, and motherhood. The study employed a novel methodological approach that combined focused ethnography with grounded theory analysis. Six focus groups ( n = 35) were conducted with Black mothers who had given birth within 5 years and were self-identified as low-income. Data analysis followed grounded theory principles of constant comparison and theoretical sampling. A grounded theory emerged, “the journey to empowered motherhood includes both navigation and transformation.” Three categories, (1) individual context, (2) strength alongside relationships, and (3) transition to motherhood, developed this theory which describes a dynamic process whereby mothers navigate sociocultural landscapes, leading to a transformed sense of self. This study offers insights into the complex nature of maternal empowerment among Black low-income mothers. The findings underscore the need for interventions that focus on fostering mothers’ existing strengths and abilities within their specific sociocultural contexts, culturally sensitive maternal care that acknowledges and addresses the unique contextual challenges faced by Black low-income mothers, and a shift in perspective from deficit- to strength-based approaches in maternal health.

Psychosocial Determinants of Antiretroviral Treatment Adherence among Black Mothers with HIV

Black mothers with HIV (BMWH) face treatment adherence (TA) challenges, shaped by gendered anti-Black racism, oppression, and structural inequalities, which hinder healthcare access, support, and well-being. Compounded by mothering responsibilities, understanding the determinants of TA is critical to addressing their unmet needs. We utilized an explanatory cross-sectional, multiphase sampling survey design. Twenty-five BMWH completed a 30-min online survey assessing their demographics, TA, and determinants. Spearman's correlation coefficient assessed associations between psychosocial and structural determinants and TA. Mann-Whitney U-tests explored group differences by TA status (&lt; 85%; ≥ 85%). BMWH were middle-aged (M = 42, SD = 13.77), single (64%), low-income (60%), long-term survivors (M = 15, SD = 9.72), and treatment adherent (85.36%). HIV-related resilience was associated with increased TA (r s = .46, p = .05), while perceived stress was associated with reduced TA (r s = −.46, p = .05). Statistically significant differences were found in depression and perceived stress scores by adherence status. Sub-optimally adherent BMWH reported greater perceived stressors ( Mdn = 174.5), and higher depression ( Mdn = 167). Findings suggest that stress and mental health symptoms contribute to suboptimal TA. Multilevel interventions are needed to address maternal distress and improve HIV treatment outcomes among BMWH.