Biodiesel Production Research Articles

Driving Sustainability in the United States: Efficacy of State-Level Biodiesel Policy Approaches.

The United States has significant greenhouse gas and criteria pollutant emissions that lead to global warming, human health, ozone, and smog issues, partially attributed to its diesel-consuming transport fleet. Until fleet electrification reaches cost parity with internal combustion engines, biodiesel use can reduce these negative impacts. In this study, we analyzed and categorized the biodiesel-supporting policies of each U.S. state using manual inductive coding to compare them against state-level biodiesel consumption and production. Through statistical modeling, we determined the efficacy of these policy approaches. The policy analysis identified that biodiesel policies that support infrastructure development and biodiesel production correlate significantly with increased biodiesel consumption at the state level. We also show that a combination of these policy categories correlates significantly with overall higher biodiesel consumption. Our methodological approach and policy analysis findings reveal valuable insight into the efficacy and outcomes from existing biofuel policies in the United States.

Recyclability of Zinc Palmitate-Based Composites in Fatty Acid Methyl Ester Production from Oil Feedstocks at Varied Acidity.

Zinc hydroxide nitrate (Zn5) is one of the layered metal hydroxide materials, which has been extensively reported as an effective bifunctional catalyst for biodiesel production from acidic oils. This report gives a comprehensive summary of the reactivity of Zn5 in the methanolysis of various oil feedstocks, plant oils, free fatty acids, and other acidic oils. Notably, as evidenced by this work, Zn5 is highly effective in converting acidic oils [palmitic acid/palm oil (PO)] to fatty acid methyl ester (FAME or biodiesel) at high yields ranging from 80 to 95%, withstanding acid content up to 10% without soap formation. The high FAME yields result from complex methanolysis and hydrolysis processes, e.g., transesterification of triglycerides in the PO, esterification of palmitic acid, and hydrolysis of the triglycerides. Despite this, Zn5 is nonrecyclable because it is unstable in the reaction media and transforms into zinc hydroxide nitrate/zinc palmitate (Zn5/ZnP) composites. The Zn5/ZnP composites were suitable for use in FAME production from PO at 100 °C for 2 h by using a methanol-to-oil molar ratio of 30:1, yielding high FAME yields of 97 and 70.7% in the first and fourth cycles, respectively. This study added better insight into how to effectively produce FAME from oil feedstocks of varying acidity by using zinc layered hydroxide- or zinc carboxylate-based materials.

Isolation, Extraction of Oil and Production of Biodiesel from Microalgae

This work is aimed at producing biodiesel from microalgae using Bold Basal Medium. After a month of cultivation, isolation, and harvesting, the microalgae were processed (oil was extracted using a chemical extraction procedure including alcohol with a 96% alcohol content and n-hexane). Transesterification was employed to produce the biodiesel from the extracted algal oil, and the resulting fuel was characterized. The results show that Chlorella sp, Desmid sp and Ankistrodesmus sp were isolated, density, viscosity, acid value, saponification, free fatty acid, peroxide value, iodine value, impurity level, and moisture content of Chlorella sp, Desmid sp and Ankistrodesmus sp oil were (0.805, 0.702, 0.716), (4.92, 4.45, 4.22), (1.51, 1.61, 1.62), (179.8, 178.61, 186.60), (0.86, 0.87, 0.88), (28.6, 28.9, 28.8), (0.31, 0.35, 0.33), (0.90, 0.80, 0.88) and (0.30, 0.36, 0.24) respectively, biodiesel had cetane number (126,125,127), density (0.79, 0.88, 0.87), flash point (126, 127, 125), calorific value (38.39, 38.68, 38.72), and viscosity (2.43, 2.66, 2.33) respectively, the quantity of biodiesel produced varied across all the replicates as the mean difference were less than the standard mean of 2.074. The production of biodiesel is practically possible in Nigeria, and the government should set up companies so as to diversify the oil sector and reduce pollution. The major limitation in this research work was using the traditional method for the isolation and identification of dominant microalgae instead of the molecular method.

Impacts of novel calotropis gigantea seed biodiesel usage as a fuel substitute along with various metal-oxide nanoparticles on the DICI engine characteristics

Calotropis gigantea, commonly known as Indian milkweed, is a prevalent plant in Asia. It typically thrives in open and unused areas, often considered a weed. This plant produces flowers and fruits consistently throughout the year, exhibiting a continuous flowering and fruiting cycle. This research investigated the viability of Calotropis gigantea seed oil as a potential source intended for biodiesel manufacturing. The oil was obtained from Calotropis gigantea seeds using hexane extraction in the Soxhlet apparatus. The seeds were determined to contain 33.3 wt% of oil content. The process of biodiesel production involved conducting a transesterification reaction. Further, the produced biodiesel was blended with pure diesel and three different nanoparticles, Titanium dioxide (TiO2), Chromium oxide (Cr2O3), and Silicon dioxide (SiO2), to evaluate combustion performance, and emission characteristics of a single-cylinder diesel engine under various load conditions. Incorporating Cr2O3 nanoparticles into the CGSB20 biodiesel blend yielded significant improvements in BTE, coupled with BSFC reduction. Specifically, in the CGSB20 + Cr2O3 fuel mixture, BTE increased notably by 31.2 %, reaching a value of 0.33 g/kWh for BSFC. Similarly, for the CGSB20 + SiO2 and CGSB20 + TiO2 blends, BTE experienced enhancements of 29.2 % and 28.1 %, respectively, while BSFC values were lowered to 0.37 and 0.4 g/kWh. Furthermore, the unchanging dispersal of nanoparticles within the CGSB20 blend exhibited extraordinary cylinder pressure and HRR values, reaching 77 bar and 34.2 J/CA, respectively. The CGSB20+ Cr2O3 blend yielded favorable emissions outcomes. Specifically, CO, NOx, UHC, and smoke emissions were approximately 4.5 g/kWh, 725 ppm, 0.11 g/kWh, and 23.6 %, respectively.

Techno-economic assessment of co-production of biodiesel and epoxy fatty acid methyl ester as renewable fuel and plasticizer from waste cooking oil

Diversifying waste cooking oil (WCO)-based biodiesel production towards epoxy fatty acid methyl esters (EFAMEs) offers a double gain, boosting revenue channels in the biodiesel sector and driving the development of sustainable phthalate plasticizer alternatives. This study explored the techno-economic feasibility of co-derived biodiesel and EFAMEs from WCO using a three-step process involving enzymatic transesterification, urea complexation, and performic acid epoxidation. The result shows that a plant processing 61,300 tonnes/year of WCO, may produce ∼27,770 tonnes/year of biodiesel and ∼30,180 tonnes/year of EFAMEs, with a total heating duty of 1,124 kW and annual electricity consumption of 34.9 million kWh. The initial capital investment of the plant in China amounts to 136.8 MM CNY, with an annual manufacturing cost of 460 MM CNY in 2022. Techno-economic evaluation demonstrats a net present value (NPV) of 421.9 MM CNY at a 10 % discount rate, an internal rate of return (IRR) of 37.69 %, and discounted payback period of 2.37 years. The break-even point (BEP) is estimated at an annual sales volume of total products of 27,101 tonnes/year, including 12,790, 11,769, 2,542, and 2,390 tonnes/year of epoxy plasticizers, biodiesel, glycerol, and polymeric grease, respectively, collectively utilizing 42.38 % of the processing capacity. Monte Carlo simulation indicates minimal risk of the project, with probabilities of 98.5 % for IRR > 10 % and 97.8 % for a positive NPV. This study affirms the economic viability of co-producing biodiesel and EFAMEs from WCO for industrial application.

N:P ratio and salinity as keys: A study on optimizing biomass and lipid production in marine Chlorella sp. NITT 02 and Picochlorum sp. NITT 04 for biodiesel production

A first study on nitrogen to phosphorus (N:P) supply ratio with different N sources (NaNO3, urea, and L-Asparagine) and salinity within the cultivation medium of microalgal species towards biomass and lipid enhancement is demonstrated. Among the three nitrogen sources, L-Asparagine at N:P supply ratio of 75:1 and 100:1 gave the highest biomass concentration for the tested microalgal species. For chlorella sp. NITT 02, the DCW of 1.257 ± 0.003 g L−1 at N:P = 100:1 and 1.256 ± 0.005 g L−1 at N:P = 75:1 was obtained for L-Asaparagine, followed by urea (N:P = 100:1 → 0.842 ± 0.002 g L−1; N:P = 75:1 → 0.843 ± 0.004 g L−1). The DCW of Picochlorum sp. NITT 04 with L-Asparagine (N:P = 100:1 → 0.964 ± 0.026 g L−1; N:P = 75:1 → 0.965 ± 0.034 g L−1) and urea (N:P = 100:1 → 0.911 ± 0.012 g L−1; N:P = 75:1 → 0.908 ± 0.01 g L−1) was attained maximum than NaNO3. The systematic exploration of the interaction between N:P ratio and salinity towards lipid content enhancement were performed by RSM-CCD approach. The optimal N:P ratio of 1.4:0.6 and salinity of 7.5 ppt resulted in maximum lipid content of 49.252 ± 0.187 % for Chlorella sp. NITT 02 with the total FAME content of 93.49 %. For Picochlorum sp. NITT 04, the optimal N:P ratio of 1.4:0.6 and salinity of 24 ppt resulted in maximum lipid content of 49.717 ± 0.073 % with the total FAME content of 91.71 %. The FAME analysis confirms the use of tested microalgal species towards biodiesel production and concurrent use of residual biomass for biorefinery applications.

Thermal and emission analysis of waste plastic and microalgae biodiesel as a potential power source for diesel engines: A sustainable approach.

The future of diesel engines is greatly influenced by ongoing research on alternative fuels. Renewable fuels have been researched and adopted by several nations to encourage the production and use of biodiesel. This study examines the energy conversion of waste plastic biodiesel and Spirulina microalgae biodiesel at a 20% blending ratio to analyze the behavior of a one-cylinder, 4-stroke diesel engine running at 1500rpm with a compression ratio of 17.5. The authors evaluated, analyzed, and compared the engine's combustion, performance, and emission at an incremental engine load of 25% from 25 to 100%. The findings demonstrated that the biodiesel fuel samples generated somewhat poorer efficiency but reduced emissions from the engine. At 100% load, the percentage differences between the diesel and blended fuel samplesranged from 2.4 to 7.3% for BTE, 2.9 to 16.5% for BSFC, and 1.0 to 4.62% for BSEC; however, the PM, SO2, and CO2 emissions were reduced by 1.6-28.8% except for NOx emissions, which are increased by up to 9.4%. Pure diesel exhibits the best performance characteristics; however, pure biodiesel exhibits the best emission characteristics. The 20% blended fuels showed promising results, as they exhibited comparable or slightly improved BTE values compared to their respective pure biodiesel fuels. The findings indicate that Spirulina microalgae biodiesel and waste plastic biodiesel have the potential to be utilized as substitute fuels for diesel engines; however, for the greatest performance and lowest emissions, their blending ratios and engine operating conditions must be optimized.

Integrating environmental remediation with biodiesel production from toxic non-edible oil seeds (Croton bonplandianus) using a sustainable phyto-nano catalyst

In the current situation of the environmental uprising toxicology, rising global temperature, and energy-depleting urges to explore and discover more renewable and greener ecological-benefiting energy resources. Biobased renewable fuels generated by using waste products can help in waste management, climate change mitigation, and a low-carbon future. The main objective of this research is to produce environment-friendly and cost-effective biofuel. The potentiality of the novel, toxic, waste, and inedible feedstock Croton bonplandianus was evaluated for biodiesel synthesis through transesterification utilizing a Phyto-nano catalyst of potassium oxide prepared by Croton bonplandianus floral stalk's aqueous extract focusing on waste management. Phyto-nano catalyst characterization was done through innovative tools such as Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS), Zeta Potential (ZP), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transformed Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy (DRS). The characterization results revealed that the potassium oxide phyto-nanocatalyst possesses an average nanoparticle size of 44.5 nm. This size is optimal for enhanced catalytic activity, indicating significant potential for efficient catalysis. The highest yield (94 %) of biodiesel was secured at optimized reaction conditions of catalyst quantity (0.50 wt%), reaction time (180 min), methanol: oil ratio (9:1), and reaction thermal point (70 °C). Transformation of triglycerides to methyl esters was confirmed by GC/MS, NMR, and FTIR techniques. A total of 21 methyl esters were observed in Croton bonplandianus biodiesel confirmed via GC/MS results. Evaluation of fuel properties was done and matched with international fuel standards. The conclusive remarks for the conducted research are that Croton bonplandianus has a high potential for biodiesel production by applying Phyto-nanocatalysts of potassium oxide while dealing with hazardous environmental conditions and waste management. Phyto nanocatalyst of potassium oxide can be reused and gives the same yield after several cycles of reusability, this reusability of heterogenous Phyto nanocatalyst can reduce to total cost of biodiesel production and can contribute towards circular economy.

Environmental impact assessment of alternative technologies for production of biofuels from spent coffee grounds

AbstractIn the strategy to combat climate change that has been caused by the world's overdependence on fossil fuels, current research is focusing on the decarbonisation of the energy sector through the production of renewable cleaner energy, such as biofuels. Spent coffee grounds (SCGs), the waste stream of the coffee brewing industry, are a potential feedstock for the production of valuable products, including biofuels. However, the environmental implications for the valorisation of this valuable waste need to be investigated. This study assesses the environmental impacts of six biomass‐to‐fuel processing technologies using SCGs as a feedstock, with the aim of identifying the most environmentally friendly technology. A cradle‐to‐gate life‐cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted on fast pyrolysis, fermentation, anaerobic digestion (AD), hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL), gasification, and biodiesel production. The mass and energy balances obtained from Aspen Plus simulations served as the life‐cycle inventory data. Using the ReCiPe 2016 midpoint (H) and Eco‐Indicator 99 as the assessment methods, potential environmental impacts were calculated in OpenLCA software. Electricity generation and carbon dioxide emissions were the biggest contributors of environmental impacts. For each category, the maximum result was set to 100% and the results of the other variants were displayed in relation to this result. AD, with the smallest total weighted score (160), was the most environmentally friendly biomass‐to‐fuel processing route, while HTL, with the biggest total weighted score (893), was the worst. A sensitivity analysis indicated that the environmental performance of biofuel production from SCGs was highly influenced by energy input flows and the source of energy generation.

Quercus ballot as an innovative feedstock for biodiesel production using ZnO nanocatalyst

Selecting non-edible plant seed oil remains the best choice for biodiesel production using an effective nanocatalyst. In this study, the ZnO was prepared as a nanocatalyst using an aqueous extract from the Alhaji marorum plant. Nano ZnO has shown high catalytic activity, is cost-effective, environmentally friendly and converts triglycerides into fatty acid methyl esters. The results indicate that ZnO nanocatalyst exhibit a high specific surface area (146.82 m2 g-1), large pore volume (0.35 cm3 g-1), and an average crystallite size of 42.3 nm. The FESEM analysis shows that the particle size of ZnO lies in the range of 30–50 nm with a rod shape and densely packed morphology. The biodiesel is produced using a transesterification process from novel non-edible Quercus ballot plant seeds. The resulting biodiesel has a 98.06 % yield under a methanol/oil ratio of 6:1 with 0.5 wt% ZnO nanocatalyst at 65 °C for 80 min. It is established that the methanol-to-oil ratio and the catalyst concentration significantly affect the transesterification reaction. The biodiesel produced is characterized by GC–MS to determine its exact composition and FTIR is used to confirm functional groups and is evaluated according to ASTM D6751.

Fast biodiesel production via potassium ferrate catalysis at room temperature using used cooking oil and refined canola oil

Abstract As biodiesel is continuously aimed to be a better alternative to petroleum-based diesel fuel, the University of the Philippines Los Baños – Interdisciplinary Biofuels Research Studies Center (UPLB-IBRSC) continues to explore process conversion techniques to improve efficiencies in biodiesel production. In this study, the catalytic activity of potassium ferrate in the transesterification of canola oil and used cooking oil for biodiesel production at room temperature was examined for potential reduction in energy consumption. Parameters such as methanol-to-oil molar ratio, catalyst loading, and reaction time were varied to determine their effects on biodiesel yield and purity. Thin layer chromatography was applied to qualitatively analyze the biodiesel, while ImageJ software was used for purity determination. The characterization analysis confirmed that the refined canola oil used in the study has an acceptable FFA content of 0.06%. On the other hand, the used cooking oil showed an FFA content of 3.71%, which is beyond the desired limit of 2%. Hence, neutralization through the addition of potassium hydroxide was performed, resulting in a lowered FFA content of 0.86%. Experimental results of the parametric and optimization study on used cooking oil showed that an optimum conversion of 86.55% was achieved at a 2:1 methanol-to-oil molar ratio, 5 wt% catalyst loading, and 90 minutes reaction time. Consequently, a yield of 83.21% was attained using refined canola oil at the optimum conditions of 6:1 methanol-to-oil molar ratio, 3 wt% catalyst loading, and 69 minutes reaction time. Generally, findings show that catalyst loading and reaction time significantly affect the biodiesel yield and purity only up to a certain optimum value. The methanol-to-oil ratio, on the other hand, showed to have a significant inverse relationship on yield and purity. Compared to the typical biodiesel production process at 60 °C with up to two hours of reaction time, this study which describes a catalytic process at room temperature and a relatively shorter reaction time, showed the potential to reduce significantly the high energy consumption in biodiesel production.

Fast biodiesel production via potassium ferrate catalysis at room temperature using refined coconut oil and vegetable oil

Abstract Traditionally, the transesterification reaction for biodiesel production takes place at elevated temperatures, around 60-65°C, for up to two hours of reaction time, entailing a high energy consumption. As the University of the Philippines Los Baños – Interdisciplinary Biofuels Research Studies Center (UPLB-IBRSC) continuously aims to conduct studies on improving process efficiencies in biofuels production, this research investigated the potential of potassium ferrate as a catalyst for fast biodiesel production at room temperature. Particularly, the catalytic activity of potassium ferrate in the transesterification of refined coconut oil and vegetable oil was examined. The effects of the parameters such as methanol-to-oil molar ratio, catalyst loading, and reaction time on biodiesel yield and purity were studied. Thin layer chromatography, with the aid of ImageJ software, was applied to analyze the purity of the biodiesel through the developed spots’ area estimation. Characterization experiments in terms of free fatty acid (FFA) content and acid value were performed to confirm the low FFA content of the feedstocks prior to transesterification. Results of the parametric and optimization study revealed that a biodiesel yield of 87.67% using vegetable oil was experimentally achieved at the optimum conditions of 6.75 wt% catalyst loading, 6:1 methanol-to-oil molar ratio, and 30 minutes reaction time. Using coconut oil, on the other hand, resulted in a higher biodiesel yield of 94.90% at a catalyst loading of 6 wt%, a methanol-to-oil molar ratio of 6:1, and a reaction time of 60 minutes. Generally, findings show that catalyst loading has a positive effect on biodiesel yield and purity only up to a certain optimum amount. Among all the parameters analyzed, the methanol-to-oil molar ratio was found to have the most significant effect as an individual factor. Given the results of this study, it can be concluded that the potassium ferrate-catalyzed transesterification reaction at room temperature can potentially reduce the energy consumption in biodiesel production and the production cost in general.

Optimization of ultrasound-assisted biodiesel production from python fat oil using response surface methodology

Diversification of oil feedstocks for biodiesel production is very necessary to reduce dependence on traditional vegetable oils and animal fats. Therefore, a conventional and ultrasound-assisted single-step transesterification process was optimized using response surface methodology (RSM) for biodiesel production from a novel feedstock python fat oil (PFO). Second-order polynomial models of the conventional (CM) and ultrasound-assisted (USM) methods were used to predict the biodiesel yield, and the coefficient of determination (R2) was found to be at 0.9946, and 0.9873, respectively. The optimal biodiesel yield of USM calculated from the model is 99.12% with the following reaction conditions: PFO/methanol ratio of 33.77% wt.%, PFO/KOH ratio of 1.05 wt.%, and reaction time of 128.53 min. Biodiesel yield results under optimal conditions have demonstrated that the regression models are consistent with experimental data. Besides, the biodiesel yield of USM (98.90%) was significantly higher than that of CM (92.73%). In particular, the properties of PFO biodiesel produced under optimal conditions were found to agree with EN 14214 standard specifications. In summary, single-step biodiesel production from the PFO new feedstock with USM can be commendably used to engender and adopt a more sustainable and environmentally friendly energy approach.

Green and economical transesterification of castor oil for biodiesel production via a novel bentonite based Li2SiO3-LiAlO2 composite: Process technology & production feasibility

In our work, a highly efficient Li2SiO3-LiAlO2 composite was designed via a simple solid-state reaction using bentonite as raw material and successfully applied to the transesterification of castor oil with methanol for biodiesel production. The preparation processes for the bentonite-based Li2SiO3-LiAlO2 composite (Li/Bent) were optimized, and the prepared Li/Bent catalyst was characterized using a variety of experimental techniques. The maximum oil conversion to biodiesel of 97.16% was obtained under reaction temperature of 65 °C, reaction time of 90min, catalyst amount of 4wt.%, and methanol/oil molar ratio of 15:1. The possible mechanisms of the reaction process were revealed. The preliminary analysis of technical feasibility for the production showed that Li/Bent composites catalyzed castor oil production of biodiesel had competitive advantages in terms of market demand, industrial policy, process technology, environmental impact and economic benefits. The high efficiency and good stability of the catalyst reflect the technical advantages of the process. According to the study of environmental factor and process mass index, the synthesis process of biodiesel generated low waste, which was a green and environment-friendly process. Finally, the economic evaluation showed that the biodiesel production from castor oil catalyzed by Li/Bent catalyst was a cost-effective and low risk process.

Circulation process of methyl ester production from pretreated sludge palm oil using CaO/ABS catalytic static mixer coupled with an ultrasonic clamp

This study investigates the potential of fused deposition modeling (FDM) three-dimensional (3D) printing techniques for manufacturing catalytic static mixers during biodiesel synthesis. The printed catalytic mixing elements comprises acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic with 15 wt% calcium oxide (CaO) as a solid catalyst. When the reactants flowed through the CaO/ABS mixing device, the blending and acceleration processes were both significantly impacted. Moreover, their characteristics, performance in biodiesel production, reusability, and economy were analyzed. The effects of methanol to oil (M:O) molar ratio, circulation time, and sonication time on methyl ester (ME) purity were also examined. The results showed that CaO crystals were distributed on the CaO/ABS mixer’s surface, which is crucial for catalytic purposes. During circulation process of ME from pretreated sludge palm oil (PSPO), catalytic static mixer (CSM) and CSM coupled with ultrasound (CSM/US) reactors were employed. The full ultrasonic power of CSM/US reactor of 16 × 400 W (total 6400 W) was operated at 20 kHz frequency. Moreover, the continuous and pulse ultrasonic modes of CSM/US reactor were compared to determine the ME purity and electricity consumption for ME production. For the CSM reactor, 12:1 M:O molar ratio and 8.5 h circulation time were recommended to realize 94.2 wt% ME purity. For the CSM/US reactor, 12:1 M:O molar ratio and 2.25 h circulation time were recommended to achieve 96.5 wt% ME purity. Under the pulsed mode operation, ME purity of 95.09 wt% was achieved, with a reduction in electricity consumption by approximately 37.6 % compared to continuous mode operation. Furthermore, the CaO/ABS catalytic static mixer was determined to be reusable for up to three cycles in both CSM and CSM/US reactors. Thus, CaO/ABS catalytic static mixers assure high purity ME production through FDM 3D printing technology with a CaO solid catalyst.

Feasibility Study of Rubber Seeds from North Sumatra, Indonesia as Biodiesel Feedstock; Production and Characterization

Abstract There are 5.5 million tons of rubber seeds produced annually on the 3.6 million hectares of rubber plantations that are located in Indonesia. Based on current estimates, 2.4 million tons of biodiesel may be produced if the rubber seeds are utilized as the primary raw material. Rubber seeds are a product of rubber plantations that have not been exploited; to obtain them, there is no need for new land or planting new trees. Rubber seeds are also non-edible, so their use does not conflict with foodstuffs. The purpose of this study was to assess the feasibility of rubber seed as a raw material for biodiesel and to produce and characterise biodiesel from rubber seed. The rubber seeds that have been collected from smallholder plantations in the northern Sumatra region of Indonesia are peeled to separate them from the kernels. Rubber seed kernels are boiled for 4 hours to separate the sap. Kernels that have been boiled are drained and then dried in the sun for 2 days in sunny weather. Kernels that had been dried in the sun were pressed using a screw press, and crude rubber seed oil was obtained. This crude oil is produced into biodiesel through degumming, esterification, and trans-esterification stages. Biodiesel production was carried out with variations in the catalyst ratios of 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1, variations in the ratio of oil/methanol (w/v) of 1:1.25, 1:1.5, 1:1.75 (g/ml), and 1:2, variations in temperature of 50 °C, 60 °C, 70 °C, and 80 °C, and reaction times of 70 minutes, 80 minutes, 90 minutes, and 100 minutes. For each of these variables, the yield of biodiesel produced was calculated. Then the resulting biodiesel is characterised by testing its psychochemical properties against ASTM standards, which include calorific value, oxidation stability, viscosity, density, acid content, cetane number, and flash point. In the experiment on the effect of the amount of catalyst, the largest yield of 85% was obtained when the catalyst ratio (%v/v) was 0.75; in the investigation of the effect of the molar ratio of oil and methanol, the largest yield of 88% was obtained at a ratio of 1.75; the maximum yield of 85% was also obtained at a reaction temperature of 60 °C and 89% at a reaction time of 100 minutes. Almost all of the properties meet ASTM standards, except for the acid value of 0.53 mg KOH/g, which is 0.03 mg KOH/g higher, whereas according to the ASTM D6751-D 664 standard, the maximum acid value is 0.5 mg KOH/g.

Utilization of Nile tilapia viscera oil and lipase as a novel and potential feedstock and catalyst for sustainable biodiesel production

The viscera of Nile tilapia, fish processing industry waste, was utilized to extract oil and lipase and used as a low-cost feedstock and catalyst, respectively, for producing biodiesel. The investigation aimed to improve the process of extracting oil from Nile tilapia viscera (NTVO) by a wet rendering method, and to use it for manufacturing biodiesel using Nile tilapia viscera lipase (NTVL)-based catalyst. Heating Nile tilapia viscera waste at 80 °C for 60 min was the best condition for oil separation, with 51.49 % oil recovery and 6.30 % yield. NTVO characteristics suggested the suitability for biodiesel production. Optimizing the synthesis of biodiesel from NTVO utilizing NTVL catalyst was also studied. The catalyst dose of 20 kUnits, reaction temperature of 35 °C, water content of 1 %, reaction period of 18 h, and methanol to oil molar ratio of 4:1 were found to provide the greatest biodiesel yield (96.9 %) (p < 0.05). ATR-FTIR analysis confirmed the conversion of NTVO to biodiesel. The physicochemical properties of biodiesel obtained met the requirement specified by international standards, namely EN 14214 and ASTM D 6751. These findings highlighted the potential of NTVO and NTVL as a substrate and catalyst for biodiesel synthesis, which might alleviate environmental pollution and disposal issues.

WITHDRAWN: rGO@CaO/NiO as a bifunctional heterogeneous nanocatalyst for high-quality biodiesel production from degraded waste oil by microwave-assisted: Diesel engine parameters assessment

In this research, a highly effective rGO@CaO/NiO bifunctional nanocatalyst was synthesized and utilized for the generation of biodiesel from degraded waste oil (DWO) through microwave assistance. A comprehensive analysis was conducted to assess the catalyst structure, revealing a notable specific surface area with significant surface characteristics for the rGO@CaO/NiO bifunctional nanocatalyst. The maximum biodiesel yield was achieved 97.46% under optimum conditions including methanol to oil ratio of 11.1 mol/mol, catalyst content of 3 wt.%, microwave time of 7.5 min, and stirring speed of 700 rpm. The catalyst's reusability was demonstrated through multiple cycles, maintaining high stability and consistent biodiesel yield over seven iterations. The activation energy and exponential factor for the conversion of DWO to biodiesel were determined as 30.91 kJ/mol and 2.3×104 min-1, respectively. The physical attributes of DWO-derived biodiesel revealed that they fall within the ASTM D6751 standard range. The impact of adding biodiesel to petrodiesel/biodiesel blends at various torques on the emission of key pollutants (CO, NOx, CO2, and UHC) and engine performance (BP, EGT, BTE, and BSFC) was investigated, yielding promising results. The rGO@CaO/NiO appears as a superior choice for biodiesel production, offering exceptional reusability, and significant biodiesel efficiency achieved within a short reaction time.

Ultrasound assisted interesterification of babassu oil with acetates using acid catalysts for biodiesel and triacetin production

Ultrasound assisted interesterification of babassu oil with acetates using acid catalysts for biodiesel and triacetin production

Facile Synthesis of Silver‐Exchanged Phosphotungstic Acid Immobilized on Sn‐Bi Bimetallic Metal–Organic Frameworks for Enhanced Esterification

ABSTRACTMetal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are ideal supports for the synthesis of porous composite catalysts. In the present study, Sn‐Bi bimetallic metal–organic frameworks (Sn‐Bi‐MOFs) supported silver‐doped phosphotungstic acid (AgPW) catalysts (AgPW@Sn‐Bi‐BDC and AgPW@Sn‐Bi‐BDC (NH2)) were successfully synthesized via a simple in situ impregnation method, which was subsequently applied to catalyze esterification for the production of biodiesel from oleic acid (OA). The physico‐chemical properties of the prepared composite catalysts underwent comprehensive analysis through XRD, FTIR, N2 physisorption, SEM, EDX, NH3‐TPD, Py‐FTIR, TG, and XPS techniques, confirming the successful impregnation of AgPW on the Sn‐Bi‐MOFs framework. Among the catalysts tested, AgPW@Sn‐Bi‐BDC (NH2) exhibited the better catalytic activity than that of Sn‐Bi‐BDC, Sn‐Bi‐BDC (NH2), and AgPW@Sn‐Bi‐BDC, reaching 91.6% of OA conversion with the methanol:OA molar ratio of 20:1 and the catalyst quantity of 0.2 g at 130°C for 4 h. The high activity of AgPW@Sn‐Bi‐BDC (NH2) is attributed to the available multiscale pore structure, high acidity, and the synergistic action of the Brønsted and Lewis acidic sites. Additionally, the esterification with AgPW@Sn‐Bi‐BDC (NH2) followed the first‐order reaction kinetic model, with an Ea of 34.5 kJ/mol. Moreover, the recyclability of the composites was also assessed, demonstrating sustained catalytic activity after four reuses. This approach showed a potential for sustainable and efficient energy production through bimetallic MOFs‐based composite catalysts.