Acid Base Bifunctional Catalysts Research Articles

Surfactant-modified ZnFe2O4/CaOPS porous acid-base bifunctional catalysts for biodiesel production from waste cooking oil and process optimization

Biodiesel production from waste cooking oil (WCO) with high acid value is useful for clean energy development and utilization. In this work, ZnFe2O4(5)/CaOPS porous bifunctional catalysts were prepared for catalytic production of biodiesel with the help of surfactants such as PVP, SDS and citric acid, using a sol-gel method. The ZnFe2O4(5)/CaOPS catalysts were characterized using XRD, SEM, EDX, NH3-TPD, and BET. The parameters (reaction temperature, catalyst dosage, methanol-oil ratio and reaction time) for the transesterification reaction to produce fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) were optimized for the optimal materials using a one-variable method. Experiments were designed using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and Artificial Neural Network (ANN) for global optimization to obtain the best process parameters. The final average yield of FAMEs was 96.89% under the optimum reaction parameter of catalyst dosage of 5.06wt%, reaction temperature of 63.69°C, reaction time of 212.22min and methanol-oil ratio of 12.96:1. The prepared biodiesel was characterized using FT-IR, 1H NMR as well as 13C NMR and compared with international standard ASTM D6751. The ZnFe2O4(5)/CaOPS catalyst has excellent stability in biodiesel production and has some free fatty acid tolerance. In addition, a cost analysis and sensitivity analysis were done for the production of WCO biodiesel. It is hoped that the research results in this paper can provide a theoretical basis for biodiesel production from WCO with high free fatty acid content.

Preparation of chromium-doped ZIFs-8/ZnCo-LDH composite as a acid-base bifunctional catalyst for biodiesel production

This study reports the development of a new recyclable bifunctional composite catalyst composed of Cr-ZIFs-8/ZnCo-LDH for efficiently converting soybean oil into biodiesel. The synthesized catalyst is characterized by several techniques, including XRD, SEM-EDS, BET, FT-IR, and TGA. The catalytic performance of pure ZIFs-8 was affected by the introduction of Cr and ZnCo-LDH active constituents. The catalyst characterization revealed that the conversion behavior of the prepared catalyst is far better than pure ZIFs-8. The optimized yield of biodiesel is 96.32 % (molar ratio of Cr/Zn = 1:4, mass ratio of ZnCo-LDH/Cr-ZIFs-8 = 1:1, molar ratio of oil/methanol = 1:12, catalyst loading of 3.0 wt%, reaction temperature of 65 °C, and reaction time of 7 h). The reaction kinetics of the prepared catalyst for the conversion process showed that its activation energy was 9.1 kJ/mol, lower than that of a system with free fatty acid and water. Also, the values of ΔH◦, ΔS◦, and ΔG◦ were calculated to be 6.68 kJ/mol, −233.04 J/mol, and 81.95–85.45 kJ/mol, respectively. Meanwhile, the catalyst can be employed for four subsequent reaction cycles to evaluate catalytic stability. Further on, the physicochemical properties of the biodiesel produced showed that it has good compliance with international standards.

Highly Efficient and Selective Synthesis of Renewable Isoprene Over Mo-Fe-O and MgO/Mg(OH)2 Composite Catalysts.

Synthesis of renewable isoprene continues to attract significant interest, yet catalysts still need improvement for industrial applications. We report herein an efficient and novel Prins tandem approach for highly selective production of isoprene from bio-based methanol and isobutene over Mo-Fe-O and MgO/Mg(OH)2 acid-base bifunctional catalysts. Hydration decreases the number of strong basic sites O2- ions and increases OH groups over MgO, thus improving the isoprene selectivity. Basic OH on Mg(OH)2 promotes the Prins condensation of formaldehyde and isobutene, while acidic OH promotes dehydration of isoprenol to isoprene. Suitable contents and proportions of basic and acidic OH groups over Mg(OH)2 increase isoprene selectivity and methanol conversion to 90 and 92 % on the Mo-Fe-O+Mg(OH)2 composite catalysts, respectively. It exhibits good recycling stability, with isoprene selectivity remaining 90 % after five successive regenerations. DFT calculations reveal OH groups formed after hydration reduce the energy barrier of the H transfer step, thereby promoting the overall reaction.

Biodiesel production from sheep fat catalyzed by CaO-SrO(x)/BCs(y) acid-base bifunctional catalyst and process optimization

Biodiesel production from sheep fat catalyzed by CaO-SrO(x)/BCs(y) acid-base bifunctional catalyst and process optimization

Mesostructured Bifunctional ZnBr2/g‐C3N4 Catalysts Towards Efficient Cocatalyst‐Free Cycloaddition of CO2 to Propylene Carbonate

AbstractCatalytic cycloaddition of CO2 with propylene oxide (PO) is a sustainable pathway for the synthesis of propylene carbonate (PC), and the design of efficient heterogeneous catalysts is a hot research topic in both C1 chemistry and functional materials. In this work, graphitic carbon nitride (g‐C3N4) materials were prepared using urea (U) and melamine (M) as precursors through one‐step thermal condensation and then applied as catalyst supports for ZnBr2. As heterogeneous catalysts, the synthesized composites (ZnBr2/g‐C3N4‐MU) exhibited higher activity in the cycloaddition reaction of CO2 to PC than ZnBr2/g‐C3N4‐M and ZnBr2/g‐C3N4‐U. The preparation temperature of ZnBr2/g‐C3N4‐MU could affect the distributions of nitrogen species and acidic strength, which thus determined the final catalytic activity. More importantly, the loading of ZnBr2 not only introduced acidic sites but also enhanced the strength of alkaline sites of g‐C3N4‐MU, enabling ZnBr2/g‐C3N4‐MU materials as acid–base bifunctional catalysts in cycloaddition of CO2 with PO.

Sustainable repurpose of waste melamine foam into bifunctional catalysts for efficient CO2 capture and conversion

Global climate change has driven the scientific community to improve the utilization of a critical C1 resource carbon dioxide (CO2) through carbon capture utilization (CCU) technology. The cycloaddition of CO2 with epoxides provides perfect atom economy and economic feasibility to produce versatile cyclic carbonates used in various industries. However, the stable nature of CO2 and epoxides requires highly active catalysts. In this work, the repurpose of nitrogenous waste melamine foams (MFs) as high-performance catalysts for the cycloaddition of CO2 was explored. The pyrolyzed MF was modified with Cu to prepare a series of acid-base bifunctional porous catalysts (MFC-X-Cu). The results demonstrate that the acid-base synergy of the MFC-X-Cu catalysts increases the efficiency of the cycloaddition of various epoxides, yielding target products at 96–99% under mild conditions. Moreover, the characterization results revealed that the superior performance of MFC-X-Cu stems from its hollow structure and acid-base synergy, which are derived from nitrogen species in the repurposed MF and the post-modified copper component. The catalyst maintained consistent catalytic efficiency over five cycles, highlighting its strong recyclability. This work presents an eco-friendly and sustainable approach towards carbon neutrality by utilizing modified waste materials for CO2 conversion into high-value chemicals.

Recent advances in co-immobilization of organic acids and bases for cooperative and tandem catalysis

Acid–base bifunctional catalysts have been extensively used for a series of CC bond formation reactions. Among these catalysts, organic acid–base catalysts have attracted wide attention due to their structural variety, conformational dynamics, and enantioselectivity. To prevent mutual deactivation, a simple, effective, and versatile strategy is the attachment of both acid and base onto the surfaces of supports. In particular, the co-immobilization of organic acids and bases not only enhances synergistic effects in cooperative catalysis but also improves yields to desired products by controlling the diffusion of intermediates in tandem catalysis, leading to significant improvements in energy and atom efficiency. In this review, we highlight recent works addressing the broad topic of the co-immobilization of organic acids and bases for cooperative and tandem catalysis. We mainly focus on the synthetic strategies for silica-supported organic acid–base catalysts and polymer-supported organic acid–base catalysts. Furthermore, we summarize and discuss the structure–activity relationships of these catalysts. Last, the remaining issues and prospects will be discussed to advance the rational design and engineering of co-immobilized acid–base bifunctional catalysts.

Dual-functionalized aramid fiber as an efficient heterogeneous acid-base bifunctional catalyst for the one-pot tandem reaction

Acid-base bifunctional catalysis represents a significant approach for achieving enzyme-like catalytic activity. In this study, we present a concise and direct approach for constructing acid-base bifunctional aramid fiber catalysts, enabling one-pot tandem deacetalization-Knoevenagel reactions in an aqueous environment. The fiber catalysts were conveniently prepared from commercially available aramid fiber using a straightforward two-step procedure, and comprehensively characterized using various detection techniques. Additionally, the acid-base cooperativity of the AF catalyst was effectively controlled through the manipulation of the acid-base ratios within the catalysts. Notably, the AF-SN1/2 catalyst exhibited superior catalytic activity in the one-pot tandem deprotection-Knoevenagel reaction at room temperature, resulting in the production of high yields. Moreover, the AF-SN1/2 catalyst demonstrated exceptional recyclability and performed admirably in a scaled-up experiment utilizing a straightforward fixed-bed reactor. These findings suggest that the AF-SN1/2 catalyst holds significant promise for future applications in cleaner industrial processes.

Catalytic upgrading of Naomaohu coal pyrolysis volatiles over NiAl and NiLiAl oxides

Catalytic upgrading of volatiles is an essential technology to improve the product distribution of pyrolysis for the clean and efficient utilization of low-rank coals. In this work, novel acid-base bifunctional catalysts composed of Ni/Li/Al oxides were designed and prepared using LDH precursors with tunable chemical composition and structural properties. The catalysts were systematically characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), physisorption, NH3-temperature programmed desorption (NH3-TPD), CO2-temperature programmed desorption (CO2-TPD), H2-temperature programmed reduction (H2-TPR), and scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). A two-stage fixed bed reactor was employed to evaluate the performance of the catalysts. Characterization results suggest that the crystal size of NiO and the surface area of the catalyst decreased with increasing Li content and decreasing Ni content in the catalyst, while the pore volume and pore diameter were positively correlated with Li content. Moreover, the addition of Li reduced the amount of weak acid sites and raised the amount of total basic sites. Consequently, the bifunctional catalysts boosted the yield of light tar and the contents of aromatics and phenols in tar. Specifically, with the highest total acid sites (569 μmol/g) promoting the cracking of heavy pitch components, Ni2.5Li0.5Al1 decreased the content of pitch in tar to 23.8 wt%, representing a 42.7 % drop from the corresponding non-catalytic pyrolysis. Accordingly, it improved the light tar yield to 7.2 wt%, which was 18 % higher than non-catalytic pyrolysis. 450 °C is identified as a suitable temperature for the catalytic upgrading of volatiles from Naomaohu coal; higher catalysis temperatures at 500 °C and 550 °C led to lower tar yield and lower phenols content, along with higher gas yield and more carbon deposition.

One-pot catalytic conversion of sugars to methyl lactate over acid-base bifunctional Sn/MgO catalysts

Alkyl lactates represent such green added-value chemicals that commonly used as biodegradable green solvents, detergents, pharmaceutical intermediates et al. Catalytic conversion of carbohydrates to methyl lactate (MLA) is a representative way for high-value utilization of biomass and the key lies in the development of highly efficient catalysts. In methanol, strong acid or alkaline catalysts are usually used under high temperature and high pressure, suffering from problems such as low selectivity, high cost or contamination of environment. This study aims to develop an acid-base bifunctional heterogeneous catalyst for the one-pot conversion of sugars to MLA under mild conditions. Sn/Mg composite oxides was synthesized by a coprecipitation method and further modified by poly (vinyl imidazole) ([PVIM]) to tune the hydrophilicity. Effect of polymer and Sn amount, calcination temperature, reaction temperature, catalyst dosage, and substrate concentration were investigated. The acid-base properties were characterized by NH3-TPD, pyridine-FTIR and CO2-TPD analysis. It was found that the presence of medium acid sites and medium base sites played an important role to the cascade reactions of carbohydrates to MLA. An optimum MLA yield of 55.4% was achieved over 10[PVIM]-5Sn/MgO (0.05 g) with complete conversion of glucose (28 mM) at 140 ℃, 2 MPa N2 for 10 h. The reaction conditions are mild and no strong acid or strong base catalyst is required. Furthermore, a possible reaction mechanism was proposed that the introduction of [PVIM] effectively regulated the local microenvironment of active sites and the acid base synergism greatly promoted the retro-aldol condensation, dehydration and hydrogen transfer reactions during the conversion of glucose to MLA.

Synthesis Method Effect on the Catalytic Performance of Acid–Base Bifunctional Catalysts for Converting Low-Quality Waste Cooking Oil to Biodiesel

Synthesis Method Effect on the Catalytic Performance of Acid–Base Bifunctional Catalysts for Converting Low-Quality Waste Cooking Oil to Biodiesel

Magnetite nanoparticles immobilized on hydrophilic polyelectrolyte-grafted carbon nanotube as efficient organic–inorganic hybrid heterogeneous catalyst for Knoevenagel condensation in aqueous medium

In this work, a novel organic–inorganic hybrid heterogeneous catalyst was fabricated for Knoevenagel condensation. First, the surface of carbon nanotube (CNT) was covalently functionalized with poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA) polyelectrolyte (i.e., organic polybase) through the surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (SI-ATRP) method. Subsequently, magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4 NPs) (i.e., inorganic Lewis acid) are densely and homogeneously grown on the CNT surface using the CNT-g-PDMAEMA template. The as-prepared acid–base bifunctional catalyst (i.e., CNT-g-PDMAEMA/Fe3O4NPs) was investigated in the model reaction, i.e., Knoevenagel condensation between naphthol, malononitrile and benzaldehyde. The CNT-g-PDMAEMA/Fe3O4NPs catalyst shows high catalytic activity in the Knoevenagel condensation between naphthol, malononitrile and benzaldehyde due to its unique structure and specific chemical constitution. In addition, this acid–base bifunctional catalyst can be readily recovered with an applied magnetic field and reused with negligible loss in the catalytic activity even after six cycles.

Transesterification of acidic palm oil using solid waste/CaO as a bifunctional catalyst

Conventional solid base catalysts are difficult to adapt to the low-grade oil used in the industrial production of biodiesel due to the high acidity. In this paper, an acid-base bifunctional catalyst loaded with CaO from the solid waste of blast furnace dust was prepared to produce biodiesel by transesterification. Meanwhile, palm oil with oleic acid was used to simulate acid oil. The catalysts were characterized by XRD, XPS, BET, SEM-EDX, CO2-TPD and NH3-TPD. The biodiesel produced was tested and found to be compliant with ASTM D 6751. the response surface method based on the Central composite design (RSM-CCD) is used to optimize key parameters for the production of biodiesel. Under the optimal experimental conditions (i.e., methanol to oil ratio of 15.24, catalyst dosage of 7.96%, reaction temperature of 148.95 °C and reaction duration of 2 h, even with the oleic acid addition of 4%) the yield of biodiesel prepared by SW-CaO catalyst was 87.67%.

Boosting catalytic performance for CO2 cycloaddition under mild condition via amine grafting on MIL-101-SO3H catalyst

The efforts to achieve sustainable chemical conversion and efficient CO2 utilization are critical to addressing climate change and environmental sustainability, and therefore the development of effective CO2 conversion catalysts is crucial. In this study, novel acid-base bifunctional catalysts, MIL-101-SO3H@Atz and MIL-101-SO3H@DAtz, were successfully synthesized using MIL-101-SO3H as an acid support material through post-synthetic modification with 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole (Atz) and 3,5-diamino-1,2,4-triazole (DAtz) for CO2 conversion reaction. The incorporation of the amine species into MIL-101-SO3H created unique synergistic effects with dual acid-base catalytic sites, facilitating the efficient conversion of CO2 and epoxides into cyclic carbonates. Among the catalysts, MIL-101- SO3H@DAtz demonstrated superior catalytic performance with achieving 100% epichlorohydrin (ECH) conversion with over 99% selectivity to cyclic carbonate with high selectivity of > 99% under the ambient condition of 1 bar CO2 without any co-catalyst or solvent. The elucidated CO2 cycloaddition reaction mechanism highlights the synergistic effects of acid-base functionalities and CO2-philic Lewis bases as well as hydrogen bonding donor groups, providing valuable insights into the factors contributing to superior catalytic performance. The simulated flue gas (15% CO2/85% N2, v/v) was also conducted using MIL-101-SO3H@DAtz catalyst. Additionally, the MIL-101-SO3H@DAtz catalyst exhibited remarkably robust structural stability and recyclability, maintaining its activity over multiple cycles.

Nitrogen-doped carbon dots as acid–base bifunctional and efficient catalysts for the cycloaddition of CO2 with epoxides

The developed new catalytic system NCDs-3/KI showed outstanding transformation (99%) of 4-phenyl-1,3-dioxolan-2-one for styrene oxide at 100 °C and 0.1 MPa in 3 h and solvent-free conditions.

Application of waste derived magnetic acid-base bifunctional CoFe/biochar/CaO as an efficient catalyst for biodiesel production from waste cooking oil

The loss of active components, weak acid resistance, and low recover efficiency of common Ca-based catalysts limited its further development and application. In this study, to effectively produce biodiesel from waste cooking oil (WCO), a green and recyclable magnetic acid-base bifunctional CoFe/biochar/CaO catalyst was prepared from sargassum and river snail shell waste via hydrothermal method. The catalysts' structure and properties were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), CO2/NH3 temperature programmed desorption (CO2/NH3 TPD), etc., The prepared catalyst mainly consisted of the carbon skeleton, CoFe alloy, and CaO. CoFe alloy provided catalyst's ferromagnetism for magnetic separation as well as acid sites for transesterification of WCO. Ca and other metal species with nanoscale (∼5.64 nm) were dispersively anchored on sargassum biochar surface, thereby leading to good catalytic activity (99.21% biodiesel yield) and stability (91.70% biodiesel yield after the 5th cycle). In addition, response surface methodology-Box-Behnken design (RSM-BBD) revealed the optimal operational conditions were 16:1 methanol/oil molar ratio, 3 wt% catalyst dosage, 73 °C for 157 min. The maximum biodiesel yield predicted value was 98.29% and the experimental value was 99.21%, indicating good satisfaction of the established model. Moreover, the quality of WCO biodiesel met the ASTM D6751 standards. This study benefits magnetic waste-derived acid-base bifunctional catalysts for the disposal of WCO towards sustainable biodiesel production.

Designed synthesis N-doped sulfonated bifunctional catalyst for efficient 5-hydroxymethylfurfural production: A pyridinic N-triggered proton-shift mechanism at basic sites

Considering the essential role of acidic/basic sites in efficient 5-hydroxymentylfurfural (5-HMF) production from cellulose, the superiority of acid-base bifunctional catalysts was unfolded. However, the lack of in-depth research on catalytic mechanism of active sites, especially the basic sites, greatly hinders its chemical utilization. Herein, N-doped sulfonated bifunctional catalysts were rationally designed. The synthesized NCS-1H catalyst exhibited outstanding activity and recyclability. Favorable 5-HMF yield of 50.0 % with 62.9 % of selectivity was obtained. Spin polarized density function theory (DFT) analysis revealed a pyridinic N-triggered proton-shift mechanism of glucose isomerization. Catalyzed by pyridinic N, the proton of glucose on C2 was shifted to O5, leading to the cleavage of C1-O1 bond. As a result, an enol intermediate was formed and converted to fructose. Compared to pyrrolic N and graphitic N, pyridinic N significantly reduced the reaction energy barrier of rate-determining step to 0.79 eV, i.e., C1-O1 bond cleavage.

Synthesis of COF-SO3H immobilized on manganese ferrite nanoparticles as an efficient nanocomposite in the preparation of spirooxindoles

The synthesis of sulfonamide-functionalized magnetic porous nanocomposites is highly significant in chemistry due to their exceptional properties and potential as catalysts. COFs are a new class of organic porous polymers and have significant advantages such as low density, high chemical and thermal stability, and mechanical strength. Therefore, we decided to synthesize COFs based on magnetic nanoparticles, by doing so, we can also prevent the agglomeration of MnFe2O4. MnFe2O4@COF–SO3H possesses a large specific surface area, supermagnetism, and is acidic, making it an optimal catalyst for organic reactions. This particular catalyst was effectively employed in the green and rapid synthesis of various spiro-pyrano chromenes, while several analytical techniques were utilized to analyze its structural integrity and functional groups. The role of a specific site of MnFe2O4@COF–SO3H was confirmed through different control experiments in a one-pot reaction mechanism. It was determined that MnFe2O4@COF–SO3H acts as a bifunctional acid–base catalyst in the one-pot preparation of spirooxindole derivatives. The formation of a spiro skeleton in the multicomponent reaction involved the construction of three new σ bonds (one C–O bond and two C–C bonds) within a single process. The efficiency of the MnFe2O4@COF–SO3H complex is investigated in the synthesis of spirooxindoles of malononitrile, and various isatins with 1,3‐dicarbonyles. The nanocatalyst demonstrated excellent catalytic activity that gave the corresponding coupling products good to excellent yields. Furthermore, the heterogeneous magnetic nanocatalyst used in this study demonstrated recoverability after five cycles with minimal loss of activity.

Acid and base catalysis of SrTiO3 nanoparticles for C–C bond-forming reactions

The development of acid–base bifunctional catalysts is important because of their cooperative activation of a substrate to promote specific chemical transformations. We investigated two C–C bond-forming reactions—cyanosilylation and Knoevenagel condensation—over Ti-based perovskite oxides synthesized by a sol–gel method using water-soluble metal precursors and dl-malic acid. Among the tested catalysts, highly pure SrTiO3 nanoparticles (23 nm) with a high specific surface area (46 m2 g–1) exhibited the highest catalytic performance for the reactions, even when it was not subjected to a thermal pretreatment. The SrTiO3 catalyst could be easily recovered by simple filtration and reused two times without a substantial loss of its performance for the Knoevenagel condensation of benzaldehyde with phenylacetonitrile. Mechanistic studies—including studies of the effect of electron-withdrawing groups on the substrates, studies of the poisoning effect of acidic and basic additives for Knoevenagel condensation, and FT-IR measurements of probe molecules adsorbed onto the catalyst surface—revealed that acid and base sites on the catalyst surface cooperatively activate active methylene compounds with nitrile groups to promote the reactions effectively.

A Polyacrylonitrile Fiber-Supported Acid-Base Bifunctional Catalyst for the Henry Reaction

A Polyacrylonitrile Fiber-Supported Acid-Base Bifunctional Catalyst for the Henry Reaction