Belt Wearing Research Articles

Calibration procedure for ultrasonic sensors for precise thickness measurement

The conveyor belt, the most expensive element of the conveyor, during many years of operation is subject to complex wear processes related to the processes of its friction against the debris and structural elements, fatigue processes related to its bending on drums and idler sets, and repeated changes in tension when starting the conveyor and passing through the driving drums. The rate of wear processes is proportional to the time and intensity of the belt operation (the number of cycles of the belt loop around the conveyor). Another character, sudden and random, is the belt damage that occurs during the fall of the spoil onto the belt. Smaller lumps accelerate the friction processes by damaging the surface of the covers (rubber cracks, small tears) and intense friction caused by the acceleration of the excavated material. Larger lumps with energy exceeding the limit values cause the belt to puncture through, tearing out parts of the cover or rim, and damage to the core. As the belt wears off, the energy limits decrease (due to the decreasing belt thickness), which significantly accelerates the rate of its degradation processes. Identifying the rate of change in belt thickness over the entire surface is therefore critical to estimating the remaining life of the belt. The implementation of non-invasive diagnostics of conveyor belts to assess the condition of its core and the degree of abrasion allows for a significant reduction in belt operating costs. It can contribute to the extension of its life by reducing uneven wear and damage to the core. The decision to replace the belt at the right moment allows it to be regenerated. Regular control of the condition of damage and abrasions of the belt can prevent the occurrence of major failures and plan the moments of preventive replacements, which are much cheaper than expensive emergency replacements that can additionally cause enormous production losses. Prediction of the replacement of belt sections and their length allows for proper management of the budget allocated to repair and replacement of belts. Thanks to the obtained detailed information on the degree of belt wear, it is possible to take ad hoc corrective actions to extend the life of the belts and to predict the remaining time of its failure-free operation in the adopted replacement strategy. In Poland, at the Wrocław University of Science and Technology, as a result of many years of research work financed by the National Center for Research and Development, diagnostic systems have been developed to assess the technical condition of conveyor belts. One of such devices is the ultrasonic system for continuous belt thickness measurement, which is being built under the LIDER X project, called BeltSonic. This article presents the method of calibrating this device and the obtained measurement accuracy. Accurately measuring the thickness of the strip over its entire surface is critical to forecasting its remaining life.

Analysis of CVT (continuously variable transmission) and the influence of variations on the motorcycle

This study aimed to determine the working principle, troubleshooting, and the effect of CVT roller weight variations on Suzuki Nex-FI 2014 motorcycles. This research process was carried out by analyzing the measurement results of each CVT component and comparing the results. The research method used is an experimental method by holding the throttle at 3,250 rpm; after it is stable, the throttle is rotated up to 10,000 rpm. The results of troubleshooting analysis and measurement of drive belt wear and tear are from the standard size of 19.50 mm to 18.00 mm, and the tolerance limit for use is 18.60 mm. As for the roller variation test results, using a lighter weight roller, for example, 8 grams and 9 grams, get maximum results at low and medium rotational speeds, compared to using an 11-gram roller (standard). The downside of this 8-gram and 9-gram roller is that it only gets good acceleration and torque at low rotational speeds. While at a high rotational speed less than the maximum. If we use an 11-gram roller, the acceleration and torque will get less than the maximum results but maximum power.

Condition monitoring and mechanism analysis of belt wear in robotic grinding of TC4 workpiece using acoustic emissions

Sharp abrasion of the abrasive belt always causes surface quality to deteriorate in the robotic grinding of thin-walled blades, which has stymied the further advancement of robot machining technology. A novel belt wear prediction approach based on the acoustic emissions (AE) signal is presented in this study to monitor belt wear conditions to achieve the expected machining result. A time-varying model of belt wear height and tangential force is initially established by employing the force analysis for various belt wear states. Next, a relationship between AE signal power and belt wear height is established utilizing the energy principle. Finally, robotic machining experiments on Ti-6Al-4V alloy workpieces are performed to achieve accurate belt wear prediction of an average error of approximately 10%, and the influence analysis of belt wear on the surface quality is further investigated to extend effective service life of abrasive belt by about 20% and realize the desired blade’s machining quality of surface roughness Ra<0.4 μm and contour accuracy ≤±0.17mm.

Wear behavior of alumina abrasive belt and its effect on surface integrity of titanium alloy during conventional and creep-feed grinding

Abrasive belt grinding is commonly used in the surface processing of key components of major equipment, such as blade, blisk and rail, due to its cold and flexible processing characteristics. Creep feed belt grinding (CFBG) can effectively improve the processing efficiency; however, it will result in severe abrasive belts wear and low grinding quality. This study comparatively investigated the abrasive belt wear behavior and its effect on surface integrity of titanium alloy during CFBG and conventional belt grinding (CBG), It was revealed that CFBG led to more severe abrasive belt wear than CBG, and the main wear form of abrasive belt was abrasive grain fracture (account for more than 40%) during CFBG, while that was abrasive grain attrition during CBG. Besides, the grinding temperature and grinding force in CFBG were more significant than those in CBG. With the increase of the abrasive belt wear, the grinding temperature and grinding force gradually decreased. Furthermore, as the abrasive belt worn, the ground surface was gradually flattened, and the roughness of CFBG reduced from 1.16 to 0.50 μm, while that in CBG reduced from 0.704 to 0.560 μm. Compared with CBG, an apparent plastic flow and oxidation of titanium alloy occurred due to the temperature effect during CFBG, and the surface residual stress transformed from compressive to tensile as abrasive belt wore.

Material removal and belt wear in laser assisted grinding TC17

ABSTRACT Titanium alloys have high hardness and low plasticity, there will be large cutting force and serious tool wear during machining. Laser-assisted grinding can significantly improve its machinability, but the wear mechanism of abrasive tools and its influence on material removal during machining have not been well revealed. In this paper, the variation of cutting force under different laser power, laser scanning speed and feed speed were studied. In addition, the influences of different laser powers on material removal was also investigated. At the same time, the abrasive belt wear in laser-assisted grinding and conventional grinding was compared. The results indicated that increasing the laser power can reduce the cutting force. When the laser power increased from 7.2W to 9.6W, the cutting force showed the maximum change trend, which decreased by 46%. Enhanced material removal and increased plastic flow with increasing laser power. Increasing the laser scanning speed and workpiece feeding rate will also increase the cutting force. In addition, laser-assisted grinding can reduce belt wear compared with conventional grinding under the same grinding parameters. Therefore, laser-assisted grinding has an important potential role in the field of grinding.

Up/down processing modes effects on residual stress for belt grinding

ABSTRACT Belt grinding is increasingly being used to process complex parts because of its ability to achieve flexible, form-following machining. Although the choice between down-grinding or up-grinding is one of the most common issues in process decisions, the influences of the differences in material removal mechanisms remain unclear, especially on surface residual stresses (RS). Thus, this paper focuses on the different grinding direction’s influence on residual stress distribution, followed by a causal analysis of the abrasive cutting mechanism. The results suggest that the up-grinding surface is more prone to compressive RS of σ a due to the different material flow directions close to the machined surface, and has stronger stress amplitudes of σ t due to the increased belt wear caused by the grits entering from the hardened machined surfaces. For both down- and up-grinding, σ a along the grinding trace’s cross-section is symmetrically distributed in a peaked pattern, but σ t is closer to a uniform distribution. One possible reason is that the contact wheel dissipates heat more quickly on both sides than in the center. Besides, the consistency of the RS distribution is better for up-grinding both within the same grinding trace and among different grinding traces.

In-process belt-image-based material removal rate monitoring for abrasive belt grinding using CatBoost algorithm

A reliable material removal rate (MRR) prediction method significantly optimizes the grinding surface quality and improves the processing efficiency for robotic abrasive belt grinding. Using worn-belt image features to predict MRR is a direct and reliable method; however, this method is rarely reported at present. This paper proposes an MRR prediction method for Inconel 718 grinding based on the abrasive belt image analysis and categorical boosting (CatBoost) algorithm. During belt grinding, four wear types of abrasive belts, namely fracture, adhesion, rubbing wear, and fall-off, are identified and analyzed. Under various grinding parameters, the experimental MRR rapidly decreases at first, then in a gradual manner. For an effective evaluation of belt wear severity, cutting grain area ratio, color moments, and texture features are extracted from belt images. MRR and abrasive belt image features are strongly correlated after normalization. All image features are taken into account for MRR prediction model training. Verification experiments indicate that the predicted data is in good agreement with the experimental data. The maximum absolute error, mean absolute error, root mean square error, and determination coefficient of the MRR prediction model are 0.17 μm, 0.4 μm, 0.2 μm, and 99.42%, respectively, which are superior to those of other popular machine learning algorithms. In this study, we present a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between MRR and abrasive belt characteristics, as well as demonstrate the feasibility of accurately predicting MRR using the CatBoost algorithm.

Investigation into the Modulation Characteristics of Motor Current Signals in a Belt Transmission System for Machining Monitoring

Belt transmission is one of the most common forms of transmission on CNC lathes. To assess the impact of belt performance on monitoring machining conditions using motor current signal analysis, we developed a dynamic model for belt-driven electromechanical spindle systems. This model enables the coupling of multi-physics variables including mechanical dynamics, particularly the dynamic axil and belt bending motions of belt transmissions and electromagnetic effects. Thus, various changes in belt transmission, including different degrees of belt tension and defects with inherent motor and spindle errors, can be investigated. The modulation characteristics of the current and speed signals revealed that belt transmission can cause a high degree of modulation, reflected by the rich harmonic sidebands at the belt-passing frequency in the motor current spectrum. The rate and extent of belt wear worsened with excessive wear and inadequate tension. It was confirmed that the sideband at the spindle rotating frequency was slightly impacted by changes in the belt conditions. This model was verified based on a CNC lathe induced with different degrees of belt looseness. These conclusions drawn from the numerical analyses can be used for motor current signal analysis, providing reliable and accurate results for machining monitoring.

Seat belt injuries and external markings at autopsy in cases of lethal vehicle crashes.

A study was undertaken to determine what injuries are associated with the wearing of seat belts and if the presence of cutaneous seat belt markings observed on victims of lethal vehicle crashes increased the likelihood of underlying injury. Autopsy reports from the files at Forensic Science South Australia were reviewed for all fatal motor vehicle crashes from January 2014 to December 2018. A total of 173 cases were included for analysis with 127 occupants wearing seat belts at the time of impact (73.4%) (age range = 18-93; mean = 45 M:F = 81:46). Of these, only 38 had external seat belt markings (29.9%) (age range = 19-83; mean = 49 M:F = 20:18). Logistic regression modelling showed that occupants who were wearing seat belts were more likely to experience closed head injury without skull fractures in addition to mesenteric and gastrointestinal injury. Increasing body mass index increased the incidence of seat belt markings (p < 0.01) and markings were more likely to be found in the presence of bilateral pelvic fractures. Thus, external seat belt markings were observed in only a minority of seatbelt wearers, and more often in individuals with higher BMIs and with bilateral pelvic fractures (possibly associated with greater momentum and impact force).

Wear evolution of electroplated diamond abrasive belt and corresponding surface integrity of Inconel 718 during grinding

Serious wear can easily occur in traditional abrasive belts during grinding nickel-based superalloy components. To find an abrasive belt with excellent wear resistance and surface finishing, this study uses electroplated diamond abrasive belt (EDAB) to grind Inconel718, and investigates its wear evolution and corresponding grinding surface integrity. It was revealed that EDAB showed stable grinding performance, and the wear mechanism in initial, steady, and final wear stage was primarily micro cleavage fracture, macro cleavage fracture and adhesive wear, respectively. As EDAB wore, ground surface roughness gradually decreased and reached a minimum of Ra0.5 µm, and subsurface crystalline grains of Inconel718 were refined. Furthermore, the abrasive belt wear was significantly reduced and the surface integrity was improved using low-hardness contact wheels.

A U-net-based intelligent approach for belt morphology quantification and wear monitoring

A novel method based on image signals is proposed to achieve the fast morphology quantification of single abrasive grain and precise wear monitoring of pyramid abrasive belt in a robotic grinding system. The Regions of Interest (ROI) of multiple abrasive grains are precisely and adaptively segmented based on the U-Net deep learning algorithm, and the Intersection over Union (IoU) of predictions reaches above 0.9. Identification of effective abrasive grains is achieved by the intensity distribution, region boundary, and nearest neighbor searching for centroids. In addition, the morphological parameters of effective abrasive grains are calculated to quantify the multiple worn forms such as continuity, non-uniform, and adhesion. The calculated dimensional parameters (area ratio and perimeter ratio) intuitively characterize the evolution of belt wear in the time domain, and the calculated shape parameters (aspect ratio and extent) greatly illustrate the effect of force and adhesion on abrasive grain wear. A comprehensive experimental study of the grinding performance shows that the material removal rate is mainly affected by the macroscopic morphological wear of the compact grains, and the machined surface quality depends more on the interaction between small abrasive agglomerates and workpiece. Furthermore, the thresholds of the mean area ratio and perimeter ratio with high independence for variable process parameters can be used as the judging criteria for determining the belt service life.

Influence mechanism of abrasive belt wear on fatigue resistance of TC17 grinding surface

Abrasive belt grains morphology and wear process have direct effect on grinding surface quality and service performance of titanium alloys. In order to increase fundamental understanding of abrasive belt wear on service performance of grinding surfaces, further provide targeted guidance for anti-fatigue surface grinding, this paper analyzed the surface characteristics and fatigue failure mechanism of the TC17 samples ground before and after abrasive belt wear. Results showed that for zirconium corundum abrasive belt with relatively independent abrasive grains, the fatigue failure of machined surface before abrasive belt wear is dominated by roughness. After zirconium corundum abrasive belt was worn, grinding surface roughness is reduced and surface mechanical properties are strengthened, which promotes the initiation of fatigue cracks from the subsurface and the improvement of fatigue life. Although the wear of electroplated diamond abrasive belt can reduce the surface roughness of grinding surface, the embedding and accumulation of abrasive grains hindered the chip removal and heat dissipation in material removal process, making the grinding surface easy to form heterogeneous ablative layer, and fatigue cracks initiated from the subsurface ablation area. The heterogeneous areas formed by surface burns will exacerbate surface stress concentration, which in turn will greatly reduce surface fatigue performance, it needs to be avoided as much as possible. Sharp electroplated diamond belts and worn zirconium corundum belts have excellent advantages in improving surface anti-fatigue performance.

Decorative Belts of Xianbei Period Nomads from Karban I, Northern Altai

In 1989–1990, five decorative belts worn by the Xianbei Period nomads were excavated from the Karban I cemetery in the Chemalsky District, Altai Republic. Their details (33 plaques, five buckles, six “units”, and two “pendant tips”) were found in four undisturbed graves of males (mounds 11, 27, 33, and 39). They are described with regard to function, decoration, and chronology. Parallels from the Altai and adjacent territories, dating to the late 1st millennium BC–early 1st millennium AD, are listed. A more precise attribution is the Early Xianbei Period (100–300 AD), correlating with the Bulan-Koby culture of the Altai. Available facts suggest that the style of these artifacts was influenced by the Xiongnu and Xianbei traditions. On the basis of the finds in situ, several variants of belt sets, some of which are hitherto unknown, have been reconstructed. The composition of the belts is unrelated to the owners’ age and evidently mirrors their personal preferences. The results demonstrate the social relevance of the belts, since most were found in burials of top-ranking males.

Energy-Based Prognostics for Gradual Loss of Conveyor Belt Tension in Discrete Manufacturing Systems

This paper presents a data-driven approach for the prognosis of the gradual behavioural deterioration of conveyor belts used for the transportation of pallets between processing workstations of discrete manufacturing systems. The approach relies on the knowledge of the power consumption of a conveyor belt motor driver. Data are collected for two separate cases: the static case and dynamic case. In the static case, power consumption data are collected under different loads and belt tension. These data are used by a prognostic model (artificial neural network (ANN)) to learn the conveyor belt motor driver’s power consumption pattern under different belt tensions and load conditions. The data collected during the dynamic case are used to investigate how the belt tension affects the movement of pallets between conveyor zones. During the run time, the trained prognostic model takes real-time power consumption measurements and load information from a testbench (a discrete multirobot mobile assembling line) and predicts a belt tension class. A consecutive mismatch between the predicted belt tension class and optimal belt tension class is an indication of failure, i.e., a gradual loss of belt tension. Hence, maintenance steps must be taken to avoid further catastrophic situations such as belt slippages on head pulleys, material slippages and belt wear and tear.

An intelligent belt wear fault diagnosis method based on deep learning

ABSTRACT Belt conveyors are important transportation equipment in coal mining enterprises. At present, most research on this topic focuses on areas such as tear resistance and foreign body identification. Few studies have focused on belt wear, but belt wear is the subject of daily inspections on site. The artificial grayscale analysis method, support vector machine (SVM) method, and deep learning network are proposed herein to identify the degree of belt wear by using image acquisition devices installed on belt conveyors to collect images of no-load belts, instead of manual inspection. The experimental results indicate that the grayscale analysis method has limitations in identifying belt wear. For complex types of wear, such as annular wear, its recognition capability is poor, and the grayscale analysis method is heavily dependent on the results of human analysis. The highest accuracy of the SVM method is 84.5%, and it effectively identifies complex wear states. After training, worn belts can be detected automatically. However, the selection of features during training completely depends on human decisions, and the accuracy is affected by such factors that have a great influence. The deep learning network attained a 91.5% average recognition accuracy rate with the highest accuracy being 95%. It can fully automate intelligent feature selection, training and detection.

DESIGN AND CALIBRATION OF THE SYSTEM SUPERVISING BELT TENSION AND WEAR IN AN INDUSTRIAL FEEDER

In the paper, the issue of the supervision of belt tension and wear in industrial feeder is addressed. The designed system is based on strain gauges that are built into the roller and are subject to the belt pressure at each revolution. In order to assess the effectiveness of this system, calibration and uncertainty analysis was performed. As a result, it was demonstrated that the main source of uncertainty was the function of approximation, while the others were orders of magnitude smaller. The final function provided results with accuracy of ca. 10% of actually measured value, which was assumed to be a good result for this particular industrial application.

Experimental and numerical characterization of abrasive belt wear and debris formation during dry grinding of nickel-based superalloys with diamond abrasive belts

Nickel-based superalloys are the constituent materials of critical components of aero engines. Abrasive belt grinding is an effective method for the precision machining of such difficult-to-machine materials. However, the wear of the abrasive belt greatly affects the quality and integrity of the machined surface. In this study, a physical simulator of abrasive belt grinding was used to carry out diamond belt grinding experiments. The wear behavior of abrasive belts and the shape of debris at different temperatures were mainly investigated. In addition, a three-dimensional finite element model of single abrasive grain grinding was established to analyze the formation of debris. The variations of abrasive belt wear and debris morphology with temperature within the experimental temperature range were obtained. There are four types of wear behavior of diamond abrasive belts: grain flattening, grain shed, dependency blockage, and adhesion blockage. The self-sharpening of the abrasive belt plays an important role in improving the quality of the machined surface. The finite element model accurately simulates the shape of debris at different temperatures and the shape of debris changes apparently with temperature. The critical temperature for the formation of good surface quality is obtained. The research results provide guidance for the selection of abrasive belt grinding process parameters.

Exquisite Materials: Episodes in the Queer History of Victorian Style, by Abigail Joseph

Reviewed by: Exquisite Materials: Episodes in the Queer History of Victorian Style by Abigail Joseph Alison Matthews David (bio) Exquisite Materials: Episodes in the Queer History of Victorian Style, by Abigail Joseph; pp. xiii + 308. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2019, $79.50, $39.50 paper. The first chapter of Abigail Joseph's book, "Dress and Drag Around 1870," conjured up a vivid personal encounter with Victorian fashion. The queer readings of high Victorian style for which Joseph convincingly argues help me retroactively to understand the 1873 fashion plate that sat, framed, on our bathroom counter during my early childhood a century later. On this plate, women and girls promenaded in a park dressed in attire that my equally flamboyantly clad orange-polyester-shirted and plaid-bellbottom-trousered self found both bizarre and enticing. This 1970s self would have looked boyish in the extreme by the standards of Victorian girlhood. Who were these doll-like people, dressed in layer after extravagant layer of blue and white fabric, ribbons, flounces and lace, with odd hats perched on their heads? Joseph singles out the 1870s as a decade known for its excessive ornamentation. It was also a decade known for the performative quality that it imparted to the wardrobes of both fashionable women and cross-dressers, like Ernest (Stella) Boulton and Frederick (Fanny) Park. As the owner of a magical childhood dress-up box, it is no wonder that I was entranced by the styles worn in a decade when fashion took on the quality of "costumes … for a 'fancydress ball,' a masquerade, outfits intended to transfigure their wearer into someone she (or he) is not, to serve as the visual and material apparatus enabling a material role to be played, the boundaries of identities to be blurred" (33). Exquisite Materials: Episodes in the Queer History of Victorian Style does an excellent job of situating and queering some of the most exaggeratedly extreme decades in Victorian feminine style and silhouettes. Joseph's framework provides a welcome and sympathetic lens through which scholars across a range of disciplines can re-view queer affective networks and archives through things, with a focus on dress and ephemera in particular. This lens is welcome in the context of a pandemic-influenced style landscape that provoked a renewed interest in nonbinary forms of dress and expression. Through her nuanced exploration of the many lacunae and silences in the queer archives, as well as by reading the sometimes surprising presences, Joseph's book speaks to the sensual and [End Page 163] sensory importance of small objects, from pets to letters, as they circulated in queer networks, having profound impacts on the lives and experiences of all those who came into contact with them. As dress and gender have always been linked in the most visible and tangible ways, it is particularly pertinent to view the mid- and high Victorian periods, often seen as two of the most binary and polarized periods in fashion, through multiple queer and trans lenses. Though this was a period when young boys wore dresses until they were breeched, the author argues, it was also a historical moment when questions of sexuality were being reformulated. Dress was literally policed by the imposition of dress laws in many places worldwide, a process intimately linked with racism and colonization, as Clare Sears powerfully demonstrates in their groundbreaking book Arresting Dress: Cross-Dressing, Law, and Fascination in Nineteenth-Century San Francisco (2014). My own field, fashion studies, has produced a wide range of texts, classic and contemporary, that focus on the ways in which dress has played with the gender binary. From Peter McNeil's Pretty Gentlemen: Macaroni Men and the Eighteenth-Century Fashion World (2018) to Ben Barry and Andrew Reilly's edited volume Crossing Gender Boundaries: Fashion to Create, Disrupt and Transcend (2020), which examines male Victorian corset or belt wearing and early bifurcated skirts for women, scholars continue to be interested in how dress embodies and displays gender nonconformity. Exquisite Materials divides its subject matter into four chapters. Three focus on case studies where style, either literary or sartorial, was actually criminalized in a legal context because of its associations with queer sexualities. These...

Prediction of Dynamic Stick-Slip Events in Belt-Drives Using a High-Fidelity Finite Element Model

AbstractA high-fidelity dynamic finite element model of a one-pulley belt-drive system is used to study how Coulomb friction coefficient and adhesion stress affect belt stick-slip events over driver and driven pulleys. The model shows that at Coulomb friction coefficient below a certain critical value, the belt undergoes pure sliding in the slip arc on driver and driven pulleys with no stick-slip dynamic events. Above that critical friction coefficient value dynamic stick-slip events start to occur in both driver and driven pulleys resulting in torque pulses, which for practical belt-drives may cause nonsmooth operation, excessive belt noise and/or excessive belt wear. For driver pulleys the dynamic stick-slip events are in the form of Schallamach waves, while for driven pulleys the dynamic stick-slip events are in the form of expansion pulses. The model results are validated using recently generated experimental results.

Mandatory vaccination and the ‘seat belt analogy’ argument: a critical analysis in the context of the Covid-19 pandemic

The seat belt analogy argument is aimed at furthering the success of coercive vaccination efforts on the basis that the latter is similar to compulsory use of seat belts. However, this article demonstrated that this argument does not work so well in practice due to several reasons. The possibility of saving resources in health care does not usually apply in our societies, and the paternalist mentality that contributed to the implementation of seat belt–wearing obligation was predominant 30 years ago, but it does not apply at this moment. Furthermore, the risk/benefit analysis is totally different in both scenarios. In the case of seat belts, there is no way to discriminate between the users. In the case of vaccines, individuals present with unique circumstances that may differ substantially from those of another and might be foreseen a priori. This means that an analysis must be performed individually before vaccination is imposed. Finally, one must keep in mind that seat belts are often the only way in which we can protect third parties against a tragic hit by the occupant of another vehicle and are very efficient tools for this purpose. Vaccines, in contrast, do not always create sterilising immunity and are definitely not the only way by which we can avoid spreading a virus; immunity certificates, isolation, or even confinement may also serve as viable methods to achieve this purpose.