Belgian Consumers Research Articles

How Do Consumers Living in European Capital Cities Perceive Foods with Sustainability Certificates?

Certification aims at ensuring food quality and safety, as well as confirming other beneficial credence attributes, such as local origin and sustainability. In order to explore the visibility and credibility of such certification labels functioning in the European Union, a study was conducted among residents of two EU Member States, Poland and Belgium. Face-to-face questionnaire-based interviews and focus group interviews were conducted among 701 adults living in Warsaw and Brussels-the capital cities of these countries. Almost 44% of Belgian respondents and 33% of Polish respondents considered certified foods as being of better quality compared to unlabeled products. Focus group interviews demonstrated that Belgian consumers had more extensive knowledge and a higher level of trust in certified foods compared to Warsaw inhabitants. Our findings suggest that certificates are moderately important factors of food choice due to the wide variety of certificates, leading to consumer confusion, a lack of label uniformity, greenwashing, limited visibility and availability at points of sale, consumer price sensitivity and the prioritization of other factors. These constraints can be alleviated by introducing food labeling standards and regulations. Increasing consumer awareness and the availability and affordability of certified foods can also boost the demand for sustainable products in the region.

Peer‐to‐peer community on social media: An exploratory cross‐cultural study

AbstractThis exploratory research utilizes the lens of uses and gratifications theory (UGT) to examine cross‐cultural differences in consumers' motives for using social media to build peer‐to‐peer (P2P) community. Using a mixed‐method approach through two studies, we first conduct in‐depth interviews to better understand consumers' motivations for P2P community on social media. Then exploratory factor analysis using Belgian and U.S. survey data and confirmatory composite analysis reveal the factors of curiosity, self‐presentation, social interaction, relational connections (Belgium only), the importance of social verification, and communication. Results from partial least squares structural equation modeling explain the relationship between the emerging factors and consumers' need for P2P community. While individualized motivations were found to be significant in both samples, relational motivations were not, as Belgian consumers were less concerned about socially interacting with others. Additionally, consumers' curiosity was not found to be significantly related to the need for community in either sample. This study extends previous research using the UGT framework by generating knowledge on cross‐cultural differences of P2P community on social media; theoretical and managerial implications are discussed.

Credibility of green advertising: six elements that drive credibility in green advertising

The goal of this academic research was to examine to what extent sustainable advertising messages are perceived as credible by the Belgian consumer. We wanted to investigate how credibility arises in sustainable commercials and what the impact of credible green advertising can be. We started with a literature study to uncover possible determinants of credibility and were able to distinguish six elements that drive credibility in green advertising. These six elements are honesty, clearness, details, commitment, urgency, and shared value. In order to validate the elements with significant evidence and examine their impact on green motivation and brand consideration, we ran a survey in which our individual respondents saw 5 sustainable commercials. These were randomly selected from a collection of 95 commercials that had been broadcasted in Belgium in the last 24 months before August 2021. Six hundred respondents participated in this survey, representative for Belgian consumers aged 19 to 90 years old. The results make clear that credibility is lacking and the key to effectiveness on many levels. Our six elements explain 72% of credibility in green advertising. Credibility and its six elements explain 59% of consumers' motivation to prefer sustainable products over conventional products. Together they explain 28% of brand consideration of the advertised sustainable product. Future success of sustainability may depend on whether brands can initiate switching the mindset of consumers with green advertising. This requires that green advertising is honest, shows commitment and urgency, provides details and clearness, and focuses on shared value for companies and consumers. This research also allows the construction of an app that forecasts brand consideration based on the scores of the 8 predictors of consideration due to the high levels of explained variance.

Environmental life cycle assessment of nutraceuticals: A case study on methylcobalamin in different packaging types

The growing production of pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals, e.g., methylcobalamin supplements, improves the health of people. This study assesses the environmental footprint of chewable methylcobalamin supplements in four packaging types: blister packs or bottles made of HDPE, PET, or glass. A cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment is conducted to evaluate the supply to Belgian consumers of the recommended daily dose of methylcobalamin supplementation (1.2 mg) in case of deficiency. The impact of methylcobalamin manufacturing in major producing countries (China as baseline and France) is analyzed based on detailed synthesis modeling of data points coming from patents. The overall carbon footprint (CF) is dominated by the transport of consumers to the pharmacy and methylcobalamin powder manufacturing in China (while its mass share per supplement is only 1 %). The impact is the lowest for supplements in HDPE bottles (6.3 g CO2 eq) and 1 %, 8 %, and 35 % higher for those in PET bottles, glass bottles, and blister packs, respectively. Tablets in blister packs have for other investigated impact categories (fossil resource footprint (FRF); acidification; eutrophication: freshwater, marine, and terrestrial; freshwater ecotoxicity; land use; and water use) the highest footprint and those in HDPE and PET bottles for most the lowest. The CF of methylcobalamin powder manufacturing in France is 22 % lower than in China (2.7 g CO2 eq), while the FRF is similar in both locations (26–27 kJ). The FRF and the difference in the CF are chiefly due to energy use and solvent production emissions. Similar trends as the CF are found for other investigated impact categories. Valuable conclusions are drawn for environmental studies on pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals: (i) including accurate data on consumer transport, (ii) using more environmentally-friendly active ingredients, (iii) choosing appropriate packaging types considering multiple aspects: convenience, environmental footprint, etc., and (iv) providing a holistic picture through assessing various impact categories.

The animal welfare cost of meat: evidence from a survey of hypothetical scenarios among Belgian consumers

ABSTRACT A survey in Belgium with hypothetical scenarios concerning willingness to pay to avoid the experiences of farm animals is used to estimate the animal welfare costs of meat production. Most participants indicate that farm animals have lives not worth living. The median estimate of the animal welfare cost of chicken meat is 10 euro/kg, whereas its mean estimate is several orders of magnitude higher. The animal welfare costs of meat are likely much larger than the consumer utility of meat consumption, the consumer willingness to pay for higher animal welfare meat and the climate/environmental costs of meat. A demand shift from beef to chicken meat due to misaligned consumer concerns for animal welfare or a carbon tax on meat, could possibly increase animal welfare costs and decrease the non-anthropocentric social welfare function. Consumers could prioritize lowering chicken meat consumption and governments could implement a flat tax on meat.

Trading off environmental attributes in food consumption choices

In light of a European harmonized Front-of-Package (FOP) labelling system, an integrated “Eco-score” should overcome the multitude of sustainability labels on food. However, several established sustainability-related food attributes, like organic standards or the product’s origin, are typically also considered pro-environmental attributes by consumers. This coexistence might require trade-offs with the new Eco-score during food choices. Further, the need to activate pro-environmental goals amongst consumers while making food choices has increasingly been expressed, as an improvement or addition to merely awareness-increasing approaches. This study evaluated Belgian consumers’ (N = 300) preferences for available vegetable supplies through a discrete choice experiment (DCE) with attributes on seasonality, localness, organic label, Eco-score and a monthly price. Furthermore, using a 2 × 2 between-subject split, various ways of priming pro-environmental goals through sustainable self-views have been evaluated. Overall, Eco-scores were found equally important as price and localness, while organic was found least important. In addition, in situations of conflicting Eco-scores and origins (i.e. local with poor Eco-scores and vice versa), more importance was attached to the most beneficial attribute. Furthermore, strong aversions towards longer term commitments to seasonal vegetable consumption were observed. Lastly, making people think of themselves as sustainable yet too confidently, might backfire. With more uncertainty, sustainable self-views might induce more positive preferences for seasonal vegetables and better Eco-Scores. The challenges and opportunities revealed by these insights should guide future policymaking for a more effective labelling system.

Probabilistic chronic dietary exposure assessment adjusted for bioaccessible fraction to metals by consumption of seaweed and derived foods

The chronic exposure to heavy elements, i.e. Ni, As, Cd, Hg and Pb the evaluation of toxicological risk through intake of raw or seaweed based foods for Belgian consumers is presented in this study. The bioaccessible fraction, obtained for different metals, were used to refine the exposure values to avoid overestimation in the reported exposures. The decrease in the exposure values was higher for As with average bioaccessible fraction of 56.8% followed by Pb, Cd, Ni and Hg. The pure seaweeds show more approximation or exceeding of toxicological limits compared to the composite foodstuffs. For all elements (except Hg), toxicological limits are approached at the maximum exposure situation due to consumption of certain seaweed-based foods. Further, the study demonstrates that the introduction of innovative foods on an emerging market may result in potential health issues due to the shift in consumption patterns as the increased consumption of seaweed and their derivatives in Europe.

A combined Nutri-Score and ‘Eco-Score’ approach for more nutritious and more environmentally friendly food choices? Evidence from a consumer experiment in Belgium

The application of Nutri-Score on food products is ubiquitous throughout Europe and studies demonstrating its potential to stimulate healthier food choices are accumulating. At the same time, a strong need exists to evenly harmonize and activate the communication of environmental impacts on food products, in synergy with the Nutri-Score. This raises the question of whether the Nutri-Score could be expanded to an ‘Eco-Score’ that would similarly encourage environmentally friendly food choices. This paper reports a randomized control trial, in which a representative sample of 805 Belgian consumers was asked to hypothetically buy ingredients for a meal in a small-scale mock-up E-grocery environment. The experiment tested whether a combined Nutri-Score and Eco-Score affected the nutritional quality and environmental impact of consumers’ food choices. This effect was compared to general and specific dietary recommendations on the one hand, and to detailed impact tables on the other hand. Since visual distraction often plays a role in informative persuasion, the treatments were evaluated subject to different levels of distraction caused by product images. The average nutritional quality index (NQI) and environmental impact index (EII) of the selected baskets were calculated to evaluate the effects of the manipulations. We find that a joint Nutri-Score and Eco-Score label improves the NQI but not the EII. The general- and specific recommendation as well as the detailed information also improved the NQI. However, the specific recommendation was the only treatment that also improved the EII. The improvements in NQI due to the scores could be explained by a reduced consumption of pork. The improvements in EII induced by the specific recommendation could mainly be explained by a reduction in beef consumption. Only very mild indications were found that product images interfered with the effect of the scores. This study provides some initial evidence and support for the use of dual Nutri-Score – Eco-Score label to induce transitions towards healthier and more sustainable diets. We also find that recommendations outside the classic Front-Of-Package label framework could be a promising way to realize such a transition. However, it remains to be tested whether similar effects occur in real E-groceries and on a longer time scale.

Sharing is caring: How non-financial incentives drive sustainable e-commerce delivery

As more and more people are buying more and more items online, limiting the ecological footprint of e-commerce deliveries is pressing. Research suggests several initiatives for retailers and logistics service providers to take, but consumer-involvement is key. This research investigates how to encourage consumers’ sustainable decision-making in the web-shop’s check-out page by using non-financial incentives only. To this end, we carry out an online experiment among Belgian consumers to assess and compare the impact of four incentives: (1) information, (2) options order, (3) social media share and (4) social norm. The experiment demonstrates that providing information on the ecological footprint of delivery options is the most decisive incentive. The impact of social media shares and social norms are positive, while reversing the order of delivery options has limited effects. This research highlights the potential of consumer behaviour in enhancing sustainability and encourages further exploration of this topic.

Alternative proteins, evolving attitudes: Comparing consumer attitudes to plant-based and cultured meat in Belgium in two consecutive years

Alternatives to conventional meat are considered an increasingly important tool in the drive to reduce consumption of animal products for environmental, public health and ethical reasons. We present two waves of a cross-sectional survey from a nationally representative sample in Belgium in 2019 (n = 1001) and 2020 (n = 1000). Participants answered questions online about their diets, attitudes towards existing plant-based meat alternatives, and attitudes towards cultured meat (grown from animal cells). We find that the proportion of Belgian consumers who said existing plant-based meat alternatives met their needs increased significantly from 44% in 2019 to 51% in 2020. We also find a significant increase in concern for issues related to animal agriculture, in particular the environment. We found no significant change in attitudes towards cultured meat between the two waves; in both 2019 and 2020, 39.3% of Belgian consumers said they would buy cultured meat. Regression analyses revealed that plant-based alternatives were more appealing to women and those with vegetarian diets, whilst cultured meat was more appealing to men. Overall, just 11.2% of consumers are both unsatisfied with existing meat alternatives and unwilling to buy cultured meat, while 43.2% of respondents were positive towards either plant-based or cultured meat, but not both, highlighting the need for a variety of alternative proteins in the market. Both cultured meat and plant-based meat were more appealing to younger consumers and those in the northern, predominantly Dutch-speaking region of Flanders. We discuss the implications of these findings for researchers and those seeking to strategically displace demand for animal products.

Exposure to lead and cadmium of the Belgian consumers from ceramic food contact articles.

This study was aimed at estimating the intake of lead and cadmium by the Belgian consumers due to the use of ceramic ware. We adopted refined exposure scenarios with respect to migrant concentration, ceramic ware usage, and metal release characteristics. A deterministic estimation was initially performed, followed by probabilistic estimation, if the deterministic estimate exceeds toxicological reference values. Based on the reference doses established by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), the risk of lead and cadmium exposure was characterized by the margin of exposure (MOE) and the tolerable weekly intake (TWI), respectively. The probabilistic median and 95th percentile intake of lead were 0.02 and 5.77 μg/kg b.w. per day for adults, and 0.07 and 17.3 μg/kg b.w. per day for children. The MOEs for neurotoxicity, nephrotoxicity and cardiovascular effects were 7.1, 27 and 64 for average consumers, and 0.02, 0.1 and 0.3 for high consumers. The deterministic mean and 95th percentile intake of cadmium were 0.026 (7% TWI) and 0.03 (8% TWI) μg/kg b.w. per day for adults, and 0.08 (22 % TWI) and 0.09 (25 % TWI) μg/kg b.w. per day for children. Considering the exposure of the Belgian population from foodstuffs resulted in the exceedance of the TWI by as much as 20-fold. The risk of exposure to lead and cadmium of the Belgian consumers suggests measures, such as lowering the migration limits for ceramic ware, should be taken to minimize the risk.

Discrete Choice Analysis of Consumer Preferences for Meathybrids-Findings from Germany and Belgium.

High levels of meat consumption are increasingly being criticised for ethical, environmental and social reasons. Plant-based meat substitutes have been identified as healthy sources of protein that, in comparison to meat, offer a number of social, environmental and health benefits and may play a role in reducing meat consumption. However, there has been a lack of research on the role they can play in the policy agenda and how specific meat substitute attributes can influence consumers to partially replace meat in their diets. This paper is focused on consumers’ preferences for so-called meathybrid or plant-meathybrid products. In meathybrids, only a fraction of the meat product (e.g., 20% to 50%) is replaced with plant-based proteins. Research demonstrates that in many countries, consumers are highly attached to meat and consider it as an essential and integral element of their daily diet. For these consumers that are not interested in vegan or vegetarian alternatives as meat substitutes, meathybrids could be a low-threshold option for a more sustainable food consumption behaviour. In this paper, the results of an online survey with 500 German and 501 Belgian consumers are presented. The results show that more than fifty percent of consumers substitute meat at least occasionally. Thus, about half of the respondents reveal an eligible consumption behaviour with respect to sustainability and healthiness, at least sometimes. The applied discrete choice experiment demonstrated that the analysed meat products are the most preferred by consumers. Nonetheless, the tested meathybrid variants with different shares of plant-based proteins took the second position followed by the vegetarian-based alternatives. Therefore, meathybrids could facilitate the diet transition of meat-eaters in the direction toward a more healthy and sustainable consumption. The analysed consumer segment is more open-minded to the meathybrid concept in comparison to the vegetarian substitutes.

Consumers\u2019 food choices, understanding and perceptions in response to different front-of-pack nutrition labelling systems in Belgium: results from an online experimental study

BackgroundFront-of-pack nutrition labels (FoPLs) are increasingly implemented by governments internationally to support consumers to make healthier food choices. Although the Nutri-Score FOPL has officially been implemented in Belgium since April 2019, no study has been conducted before its implementation to compare the effectiveness of different FOPLs.MethodsThe aim of this study was to compare food choices, objective understanding and perceptions of Belgian consumers in response to five different FOPLs, currently implemented in different countries internationally, namely the Health Star Ratings (HSR), the Multiple Traffic Lights (MTL), Nutri-Score, Guideline Daily Amounts (GDA), and Warning symbols. During the summer 2019, 1007 Belgian consumers were recruited and randomized to one of the five different FOPLs. Through an online questionnaire they were asked to choose one of three different foods within each of three categories (pizzas, cakes, breakfast cereals), as well as rank those same three foods according to nutritional quality, in the condition without as well as with FOPL. In addition, various questions were asked on their perceptions in relation to the FOPL they were exposed to.ResultsPerceptions of consumers were favorable for all FOPLs with no significant differences between the different FOPLs. There were no significant differences in food choices among the different FOPLs, but Nutri-Score performed best for ranking food products according to nutritional quality.ConclusionsWhile there were no significant differences among different FOPLs for food choices and perceptions, the Nutri-Score was the most effective FOPL in informing Belgian consumers of the nutritional quality of food products.

Belgian case study on flumethrin residues in beeswax: Possible impact on honeybee and prediction of the maximum daily intake for consumers

To assess the health risk posed by flumethrin residues in beeswax to honeybees and honey consumers, 124 wax samples randomly distributed in Belgium were analysed for flumethrin residues using liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. The risk posed by flumethrin residues in beeswax to honeybee health was assessed through the calculation of a non-pondered and a pondered Hazard Quotient by the prevalence rate of flumethrin considering an oral or topical exposure. No statistical difference was found when comparing both the average flumethrin residues concentrations and contact and oral pondered hazard quotients between apiaries with lower and equal or higher than 10% of colony loss. Flumethrin residues estimated daily intake by Belgian consumers through honey and wax ingestion was estimated via a deterministic (worst-case scenario) and a probabilistic approach. The probabilistic approach was not possible for beeswax consumption due to the lack of individual consumption data. The highest estimated exposure was <0.1% of the theoretical maximum daily intake for both approaches, meaning no risk for human health.

EU Insights Chemical mixtures awareness, understanding and risk perceptions

EFSA defines ‘chemical mixtures’ as ‘several substances which may have combined effects on the body from their combined exposures’. There are already some methodologies for assessing risks from combined exposure to groups of chemicals, and EFSA together with European partners is developing methodologies to assess the risk from exposure to combinations of chemicals in food. However, consumers' understanding and views on this topic have not been documented. This poses significant challenges to communication for EFSA and Member State authorities. To address this gap, a study on consumer views and perceptions was conducted. The study has followed a mixed method approach consisting of desk research, an online survey of EU citizens, a focus group with Belgian consumers, and a campaign of qualitative interviews with journalists. The consumer survey and focus group explored consumer knowledge and concerns about chemical mixtures, and reactions to different wordings and messages associated with chemical mixtures. Interviews with media representatives explored wording and messages to communicate about chemical mixtures and preferred ways of receiving information on chemical mixtures from EU bodies. Study findings indicate that consumer are well-aware of man-made chemicals, but less so of naturally-occurring chemicals. Consumers also have low awareness of chemical mixtures and the risk assessment process. Their level of concern from being exposed to combined effects of chemicals in food is high. Findings suggest that risk perceptions on this matter are influenced by the general perception that chemicals are man-made and therefore pose a greater risk to human health than other substances or products considered natural. There were country differences in the way the choice of wording impacted consumer perceptions, which can inform tailored approaches to communication

Do enriched digital catalogues offer compelling experiences, beyond websites? A comparative analysis through the IKEA case

Technology supports digital versions of catalogues, enriched with rich media tools, in an effort to create compelling consumer experiences. Yet these digital catalogues also share several similarities with websites, so why display both? Digital enriched catalogues could be promising to generate a compelling experience for consumers. However, is it really the case? To determine why retailers might use digital catalogues, what experiences consumers encounter, and the effect of the related enrichments, this study compares an enriched digital catalogue to a website, using a dual approach that spans both utilitarian and experiential perspectives. Two experiments, conducted with French and Belgian consumers, focus on the case of IKEA's enriched digital catalogue and website. The results indicate that though the digital enriched catalogue does not quite live up to its experiential promises, it features differences relative to the website, with implications for consumer usage and behavioral intentions.

The “next day, free delivery” myth unravelled

PurposeCurrently, it is unclear how omnichannel retailers can create a last mile offer that is both attractive and sustainable from an economic and environmental point of view. The purpose of this paper is to explore to which extent consumers are willing to adopt last mile options that are more sustainable and how these options should be composed to remain attractive.Design/methodology/approachTo this end, the authors surveyed a representative sample of Belgian consumers, using choice-based conjoint experiments, and analysed their preferences structures.FindingsConsumers’ preference goes out to free, next day delivery to an address of choice, on regular office hours during the week. However, when free delivery and return are offered, consumers are willing to collect their orders themselves or wait longer for their orders to arrive.Practical implicationsThe research findings are important for retailers that (plan to) operate an omnichannel model. For omnichannel retailers with a dense store network, the results indicate that consumers accept their store network as pick-up and return locations, allowing retailers to create a more efficient and sustainable supply chain in which their online and offline activities can be combined.Originality/valueThe research findings contribute to current literature and practice by combining “planet” and “profit” components of sustainability in last mile transport and applying it in the novel omnichannel environment.

Caramel colour and process contaminants in foods and beverages: Part II – Occurrence data and exposure assessment of 2-acetyl-4-(1,2,3,4-tetrahydroxybutyl)imidazole (THI) and 4-methylimidazole (4-MEI) in Belgium

In Europe, 2-acetyl-4-(1,2,3,4-tetrahydroxybutyl)imidazole (THI) and 4-methylimidazole (4-MEI) are – to a certain level – allowed to be present in the food colours ammonia caramel (E 150c) and sulphite ammonia caramel (E 150d). Besides their presence in food colours, exposure to these contaminants may also include other dietary sources. This study describes the occurrence of THI and 4-MEI in a wide variety of food products (n = 522) purchased from the Belgian market and their dietary intake in Belgian consumers from 15 years old onwards. THI was found to be present in 22.4% of the investigated foods at a level up to 551 µg/kg. For 4-MEI (57.7% quantifiable), concentrations up to 2,835 µg/kg were observed. The average dietary intake amounted to 0.02–0.36 µg kg−1 bw−1 day for THI and 0.4–3.7 µg kg−1 bw−1 day for 4-MEI. Coffee, cola and beer were contributing most to the dietary THI and 4-MEI intake in Belgium.

Do anticipated emotions influence behavioural intention and behaviour to consume filled chocolates?

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the influence of anticipated emotions (AE) on behavioural intention and behaviour to consume filled chocolates and to give an indication on the possible differences in consumer behaviour between two countries.Design/methodology/approachThe theory of planned behaviour (TPB) was used to explain the consumption of chocolate. In this study, TPB is extended with a construct for AE.FindingsA total of 859 consumers in Belgium and Hungary participated in the study and results showed that including AE increases the predicted variance of the TPB. Moreover, AE have a positive effect on the intention and the actual behaviour of consumers. Next, the study suggests that Belgian consumers are more influenced by their emotional and control beliefs and that Hungarian consumers are also driven by opinion of family and friends and some behavioural beliefs.Practical implicationsOverall, TPB can contribute to the understanding of behavioural intention and behaviour towards eating filled chocolate. Moreover, it can help to develop a marketing plan for specific consumer segments as it can identify influencing factors and consumer beliefs towards a product.Originality/valueThis is the first study that compares the fit of the TPB model with and without the construct of AE. The work contributes to the growing literature on emotions as it does not focus on emotions elicited during or after consumption, but explores if the AE also play a significant role in behaviour.

Beer and Organic Labels: Do Belgian Consumers Care?

We investigate whether beer drinkers are willing to pay a price premium for organic beer compared to conventional beer. Moreover, we identify subgroups of consumers with different preference patterns by investigating whether specific personal characteristics of the purchasers have an influence on this willingness-to-pay. Specifically, results are reported from a survey including a stated choice experiment of consumer decisions concerning beer purchases in Flanders (Belgium), focusing on organic labels. A non-probabilistic sampling method was used over the Internet and 334 responses were useable for the empirical analysis. Each respondent was asked to choose their preferred beer from a series of nine choice cards describing three different beer varieties. In this respect, we created a two-block design, each consisting of nine choice cards. Each respondent was randomly presented with one of the two blocks, so that an equal distribution of the blocks could be obtained. Overall, we find that our sample is statistically indifferent between a beer with an organic label and a similar beer without an organic label. This is in line with previous research that stated that consumers are unwilling to pay high price premiums for organic vice products, such as beer. We find no statistically different preferences for male or female respondents, or for members or non-members of nature protection organizations. However, we find a significant difference (p-value = 0.029) between primary beer shoppers who have a zero willingness-to-pay (WTP) for organic beer compared to similar non-organic beer and the reference group that has a negative WTP of 14 Euro per 1.5 L for organic beer. In addition, the WTP for beer drinkers older than 40 (negative WTP of 22 Euro per 1.5 L) and the WTP for frequent beer drinkers (zero WTP) are statistically different from the reference group (p-value = 0.019 and 0.000 respectively).