The framework of integrating passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) and deep learning algorithms with social network analysis (SNA) presents a groundbreaking approach to understanding the complex dynamics of animal societies, especially studying the social behavior and communication of elusive species or those living in inaccessible habitats. By leveraging the non-invasive nature of PAM, we could collect long-term, high-resolution audio data of animal vocalizations, which are essential for understanding social interactions. Applying deep learning algorithms to these data has significantly enhanced our ability to identify, classify, and extract subtle patterns within vocalizations, revealing social subgroups and communication networks that were once undetectable. Furthermore, this technological advancement enables the efficient processing of vast amounts of data and the integration of multi-layered information, such as movement and environmental data, to create a comprehensive view of animal social networks. The framework proposed in this review also facilitates the comparison of social networks across different species and ecological contexts, contributing to a deeper understanding of the principles governing social behavior. As technology continues to evolve, the potential of this framework to transform our capacity to study and protect animal societies is immense, offering a promising future for behavioral ecology and conservation biology.

Courtship displays provide important insight into sexual selection, evolution and the roles of communication signals in behavioural ecology. Any trait indicating individual quality must display phenotypic variation. Studying this variation can provide insight into the uses of acoustic cues in intra- and intersexual competition. We used the elaborate, understudied acoustic aerial display of the Cape Clapper Lark Corypha apiata to explore the relationship of display and nesting site quality parameters, to assess its potential role in sexual selection. We quantified the differences between individuals by estimating the repeatability of the bioacoustics of the display (claps, call). We then tested for the correlation with proxies of territory quality (area, arthropod prey biomass, Protea plant density). The song and clapping duration showed moderate repeatability, Protea density was negatively associated with the clap duration and the number of claps. There were no associations between the call parameters, the territory size and prey biomass. Wing clapping thus could play a role in sexual selection in this species, and our study provides a platform for future investigation of non-vocal acoustic signalling in birds.

Abstract Understanding lifetime space use by pelagic animals is pivotal for ecology and fisheries management, but electronic tags are costly, labour‐intensive and rarely able to capture juvenile movement. We implemented an iso‐logging workflow that converts stable isotope chronologies in eye lenses into continuous migration tracks, and demonstrate its application to skipjack tuna ( Katsuwonus pelamis ). The δ 13 C and δ 15 N of muscle from 1122 skipjack were combined with oceanographic predictors in a geostatistical model to produce isoscapes of the western Pacific. Then, a newly developed dry‐and‐scrape protocol was applied to eye lenses from 33 adult skipjack and yielded high‐resolution δ 13 C and δ 15 N time series. These isotope ratios were normalised to muscle–lens offsets and ontogenetic enrichment, and a Bayesian state‐space model was used to estimate lifetime migration tracks for each individual. Ensemble reconstructions exposed two migration habits: most fish caught in the western tropical Pacific were lifelong residents, whereas several North Pacific fish had migrated there from tropical nurseries. This provides the first direct evidence of partial migration in a highly migratory pelagic fish. We show that the reconstruction of migration by iso‐logging is a powerful approach for reconstructing the lifetime migration history of pelagic fish. This approach could be applied to a variety of other marine organisms, possibly providing a breakthrough for behavioural ecology studies of marine ecosystems.

Rivomarginella morrisoni is a freshwater snail endemic to Thailand, yet its behavioral ecology remains poorly understood. This study described the feeding behavior of R. morrisoni, focusing on its foraging activity, behavioral patterns, and food detection mechanisms under laboratory conditions using specimens collected from four river basins in central Thailand. Daily monitoring revealed nocturnal emergence, peaking between 21:00 and 22:00 h, with stable rhythms established 72 h post-feeding. Feeding trials revealed a preference for aged shrimp over fresh or decayed ones. Behavioral observations confirmed that food localization in R. morrisoni was mediated by chemical cues. Light–dark tests indicated a slight tendency toward darkness, but no significant phototactic response was observed. These findings suggest that R. morrisoni is a generalist scavenger with chemosensory-driven foraging and nocturnal activity. Its apparent sensitivity to habitat disturbance underscores the relevance of behavioral studies for informing future conservation and captive breeding efforts.

The study of animal activity budgets provides information regarding species' behavioural repertoire and how this can change over various time scales and due to external factors, both natural and anthropogenic. External environmental factors affecting animal behaviour vary on temporal and spatial scales, and include fluctuations in daily weather patterns, annual and long-term climatic variability, and the spatial and temporal distribution of resources, as well as inter- and intra-specific interactions. We present the results from the first long-term, 10 years, study of activity budgets of the Critically Endangered yellow tailed woolly monkey (Lagothrix flavicauda), a species endemic to high elevation forests in northern and central Peru. Our study took place at the El Toro field station which lies on the eastern slopes of the Andes in the Comunidad Campesina de Yambrasbamba in Amazonas Region, Peru. We collected behavioural data using instantaneous sampling on focal individuals. We analysed a total of 18,440 instantaneous samples, covering 3,073h of survey effort, across 65 months between October 2009 and November 2018. Overall activity budgets for L. flavicauda were 30.3% 'Travel', 29.3% 'Rest', 27.7% 'Feed', 9.6% 'Forage', 1.5% 'Social' and 1.7% 'Other' behaviours. Our results are similar to the previously published activity budget for L. flavicauda at the site, and comparisons with other woolly monkeys show similar tendencies. There were significant differences in behaviours between age/sex classes with adult males resting more, juveniles the most social, and females foraging most. There was a trend of more foraging and resting during the dry season. We found lower incidences of resting and increased social behaviours correlated with higher minimum temperatures, and reduced social behaviour with increased precipitation. Better understanding of primate behavioural ecology and adaptability to temporal changes in environmental conditions and resource availability can help improve conservation strategies.

The Lepidoptera, butterflies and moths, display an astonishing diversity of spatial orientation strategies essential for survival, reproduction, and ecological success. These spatial orientation strategies range from basic taxes to light, wind, gravity, and chemical cues, to more advanced strategies such as straight-line dispersal, multigenerational migration across continents, and complex trap-lining foraging involving long-term spatial memory. These orientation behaviours are tightly integrated with the ecological roles of lepidopterans as pollinators, prey, and bioindicators, and are supported by a flexible neuronal network. Of special interest for successful orientation are higher-order integration centres like the mushroom bodies (centres for learning and memory) and the central complex (the centre for spatial orientation and locomotion). These centres support cue integration, compass orientation, memory, and directional decision-making. However, anthropogenic stressors, including habitat fragmentation, light pollution, pesticides, and electromagnetic noise, threaten both the environmental cues and the neural systems facilitating lepidopteran navigation, with potential cascading effects on biodiversity and ecosystem health. By combining insights from behavioural ecology, neurobiology, and conservation, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the challenges and adaptations that shape the navigational toolkit of lepidopterans, underlining their significance as animal models for studying spatial orientation in a changing world.

Abstract Accurate estimation of individual ages is crucial for studies in ecology, behaviour and conservation. However, when birth dates are unknown, estimating chronological ages often relies on post‐mortem morphological analyses or invasive and cumbersome techniques. Here we investigate the potential of deep learning applied to photographic portraits for non‐invasive chronological age prediction. Comparing the predictive capabilities of several recent deep learning models with 25,500 portraits of wild mandrills collected on 284 individuals of known ages in situ, we show that the foundational transformer models DINOv2 largely outperformed convolutional networks (notably ResNext, ConvNeXt, EfficientNetv2) and the other popular transformer model VOLO. To gain insight into the model's predictions, we first examine the influence of the background. Although the model relied on background information for its predictions, this did not lead to a significant improvement in overall accuracy: there was no meaningful difference between predictions when age estimates were from images with or without background. Second, we show that inter‐individual variation in prediction errors is partly explained by biological factors. At the individual scale, the prediction error was consistent through time: when individuals appeared older than their chronological age when young, they also consistently appeared older throughout their life. In addition, we found that offspring of older mothers appeared older compared to those of younger mothers, consistent with previous findings on the link between offspring development and maternal age in this species. Altogether, these results indicate that the most modern artificial intelligence methods offer a simple, low‐cost and non‐invasive approach for chronological age estimation and that the difference between chronological and estimated ages could be used by behavioural ecologists to study individual growth, pace of development and biological aging processes.

Pacific imperial pigeons (Ducula pacifica) are important seed dispersers with complex vocal and behavioural repertoires. This study documents their vocalisations, territoriality, mating, nesting, and feeding behaviours in Rarotonga, Cook Islands. Five vocalisation types were identified and described here as the common coo, territorial coo, courtship coo, quiet coo, and growl. The common coo and growl were most frequent, often exchanged in call-and-response between distant birds. The territorial coo and courtship coo were linked to close interactions. Territoriality involved displays, chasing, and occasional combat. Year-round aerial display flights suggest a potential role in territoriality rather than being exclusively tied to breeding season. Mating included novel post-mating courtship feeding. Feeding observations and faecal analyses confirmed an exclusive reliance on non-native plants, indicating a potential role in spreading invasive species. This study enhances knowledge of Pacific imperial pigeon vocal

The progressive ratio (PR) schedule is a popular test of motivation. Despite its popularity, the PR task hinges on a low-dimensional behavioral readout—breakpoint or the maximum work requirement subjects are willing to complete before abandoning the task. Here, we show that with a simple modification, the PR task can be transformed into an optimization problem reminiscent of the patch-leaving foraging scenario, which has been analyzed extensively by behavioral ecologists, psychologists, and neuroscientists. In the PR with reset (PRR) task, male and female rats performed the PR task on one lever but could press a second lever to reset the current ratio requirement back to its lowest value at the cost of enduring a reset delay, during which both levers were retracted. Rats used the reset lever adaptively on the PRR task, and their ratio reset decisions were sensitive to the cost of the reset delay. We derived an approach for computing the optimal bout length—the number of rewards to earn before pressing the reset lever that produces the greatest long-term rate of reward—and found that rats flexibly changed their behavior to approximate the optimal strategy. However, rats showed a systematic bias for bout lengths that exceeded the optimal length, an effect reminiscent of “overharvesting” in patch-leaving tasks. The PRR task thus represents a novel means of testing how rats adapt to the cost–benefit structure of the environment in a way that connects deeply to the broader literature on associative learning and optimal foraging theory.

Nature guiding how we nurture: Using the behavioral ecology of the domestic sow to advance welfare legislation

ABSTRACT ECR Spotlight is a series of interviews with early-career authors from a selection of papers published in Journal of Experimental Biology and aims to promote not only the diversity of early-career researchers (ECRs) working in experimental biology but also the huge variety of animals and physiological systems that are essential for the ‘comparative’ approach. Denise Dalbosco Dell'Aglio is an author on ‘ Heliconinii butterflies display flight behaviours reminiscent of orientation flights when using new floral sources’, published in JEB. Denise conducted the research described in this article while a Research Associate in Stephen Montgomery's lab at the School of Biological Science, University of Bristol, UK. She is now a Postdoctoral Fellow in the lab of Owen McMillan at Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Gamboa, Panama City, Panama, investigating behavioral ecology, with a focus on butterflies: their brain, vision and interactions with predators and hostplants.

Abstract Numerous traits that define behaviour, development, life‐history and species ecology are expressed as dichotomous alternative phenotypes (e.g. morphological and behavioural polyphenisms, reproductive vs. non‐reproductive states, movement vs. philopatry). Accordingly, core objectives spanning behaviour, demography and evolutionary ecology are to decompose phenotypic variation in dichotomous traits into different environmental and/or genetic components, and thereby infer biological mechanisms and predict future dynamics. However, perhaps surprisingly, variance decompositions for dichotomous phenotypes have not been rigorously defined or comprehensively achieved. While analysts commonly use generalised linear mixed models (GLMMs) to estimate variance components on underlying, latent continuously distributed scales, conceptual and mathematical formalisations of back‐transformations onto the dichotomous scale of phenotypic expression have been lacking. These methodological limitations hinder full conceptualisation and evaluation of biological processes and impede cross‐system comparisons, but such challenges are rarely acknowledged. Accordingly, we first synthesise current approaches to modelling dichotomous phenotypic variation. Using the threshold model paradigm, we clarify the meaning of latent‐scale GLMM parameters. We then formulate and solve exact back‐transformation equations, linking the continuous latent scale (termed ‘liability’) to the dichotomous phenotypic scale. We use these derivations to devise a new methodology to systematically define and quantify all components of phenotypic variance that non‐linearly emerge from linear combinations of latent liability‐scale effects. We thereby provide an easy‐to‐implement calculation procedure (and R codes) for fully and accurately decomposing phenotypic variance in dichotomous traits using GLMM estimates. We highlight three main applications, with worked examples, to show how our novel back‐transformation methodology can address three core challenges in ecology and evolutionary biology: validly quantifying repeatability in binary behaviours, heterogeneity in individual contributions to population growth and genetic variances in dichotomous phenotypes. These applications illustrate how our full variance decompositions systematically quantify individual and/or genetic differences in phenotypic plasticity, revealing critical eco‐evolutionary processes. Overall, we provide new capability to comprehensively quantify and rationalise emerging variation in dichotomous phenotypic traits. By revealing key biological properties that were previously hidden and eliminating inaccuracies and misconceptions that are otherwise likely to be commonplace, we open broad opportunities to meaningfully dissect dichotomous phenotypic variation in ecological and evolutionary research.

We examined giant panda paw use while feeding on bamboo to determine if this species exhibits manual lateralization. Video recordings of 21 captive giant pandas (15 females and six males) were used to measure two unimanual behaviors: 1) duration of grasping and manipulating bamboo culm during feeding bouts and 2) number of reaches. We did not find paw preferences at the population level but found significant sex differences in paw use. Male giant pandas used their right paw significantly more than their left paw while manipulating bamboo culm, whereas females used their left paw more for both manipulating and reaching for bamboo. Our results differ from previous studies, in which males of most placental quadrupeds have been found to favor the left forelimb more so than females. This preliminary study also suggests that task differences influence the degree of manual lateralization in the giant panda, and challenges the hypothesis that a lack of a corpus callosum leads to sex differences in marsupial forelimb biases. Considering the giant panda's distinctive behavioral ecology, morphology, and evolutionary history, this species provides a valuable model for investigating manual lateralization. We recommend further research on giant pandas, to test our preliminary findings, as well as comparative studies across other ursid species, which exhibit substantial variation in habitat and feeding ecology.

The science funding crisis threatens the careers of future behavioral ecologists

Understanding the processes that drive divergence in animal signals is central to behavioral and evolutionary ecology. While adaptive explanations have traditionally dominated, especially for traits involved in sexual signaling, the role of non‐adaptive processes remains underexplored – particularly for vertebrate chemical signals. Here, we investigated chemical signal variation across multiple island populations of the Italian wall lizard Podarcis siculus. Using lipid and protein profiling of glandular secretions, microsatellite‐based genetic distances, and socio‐ecological variables, we tested competing hypotheses for signal divergence. Genetic and geographic distances were strong predictors of variation in chemical signal profiles, whereas environmental conditions (i.e. climate, habitat and food availability) and sexual size dimorphism offered little explanatory power. These findings suggest that stochastic mechanisms, such as genetic drift driven by historical isolation and restricted gene flow, have likely played a prominent role in shaping chemical signal diversity in this system. Our results underscore the importance of considering both non‐adaptive and adaptive processes in signal evolution, particularly in geographically isolated systems with limited dispersal, such as island archipelagos.

Saliva is a well-established source of DNA for various applications due to its non-invasive collection and its provision of high-quality DNA. However, its use in wild and free-ranging animal research remains limited due to challenges in collection without direct animal handling. In this study, we developed and evaluated a hands-off saliva collection method designed for free-ranging domestic dogs (FRDs), serving as a model for non-invasive genetic sampling of wildlife. Our method utilized a funnel paired with a commercially available Performagene kit (DNA Genotek, Canada), presented to the dog in the presence of an operator. The dog was free to approach and interact with the apparatus, depositing saliva while trying to reach bait. We compared DNA yield and genotyping success from samples using this hands-off method with those collected via the manufacturer’s recommended method. We collected 461 saliva samples from 326 FRDs, performing 750 DNA extractions. Samples collected by hand yielded significantly higher DNA concentrations after the first extraction attempt (mean = 46.3 ng/µL) than those collected using the hands-off method (mean = 32.2 ng/µL). Despite lower DNA concentrations, genotyping success did not significantly differ between methods, demonstrating that the hands-off method can yield DNA suitable for genomic analyses. The hands-off saliva collection method is a viable alternative to invasive sampling, addressing ethical concerns and enabling genomic studies in wild animals. Furthermore, our method mitigates sampling bias toward bold individuals, a common limitation in behavioral and genetic studies of free-ranging animals. With minor adaptations, this method could be applied across various species, including more elusive ones, contributing to conservation genetics and behavioral ecology research.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-19267-1.

Behavioral ecologists frequently focus on a single modality of wildlife response to disturbance, which can limit inference because different antipredator responses reflect various aspects of predation risk management. We investigated intrapopulation variation in tolerance to human-associated risk within a grizzly bear-ecotourism system in Nuxalk Territory, considering behavior results in tandem with spatial data from genetically tagged individuals. Whereas our behavioral analysis revealed no effects of ecotourism on alertness, our central measure of tolerance, we observed variation in space-use among individuals (n = 80). Only 12, primarily females (n = 10), showed preference for the area of highest ecotourism activity; others showed little to no use of the area, despite its close proximity and high resource abundance. These patterns suggest that behavioral data may have been biased towards individuals tolerant enough to coexist with ecotourism. Examining behavior of ostensibly tolerant ecotourism individuals alone would have overlooked intrapopulation variation in space-use at broader spatial scales. A comprehensive assessment that simultaneously draws upon both spatial and behavioral dimensions may therefore provide richer insight into coexistence than either lens alone. More broadly, coexistence dynamics in this and other systems might exclude some individuals within populations that are not tolerant enough to participate.

Seasonal mercury in an endangered primate from fragmented karst forest: Does behavioral observation advance ecotoxicological risk assessment?

The functional adaptations of mammalian brain structures through a behavioural ecology lens

Despite the oligotrophic conditions of the southeastern Levantine Sea and northern Red Sea, six lobster species—five slipper lobsters (Scyllaridae) and one spiny lobster (Palinuridae)—maintain permanent, reproducing populations in the study area. Additionally, there are isolated records of four other sporadic lobster species. In the southeastern Mediterranean, permanent species include the Mediterranean slipper lobster,Scyllarides latus, small European locust lobster, Scyllarus arctus, and pygmy locust lobster, Scyllarus pygmaeus. In the northern Red Sea, they include the clamkiller slipper lobster, Scyllarides tridacnophaga, Lewinsohn locust slipper lobster, Eduarctus lewinsohni, and pronghorn spiny lobster, Panulirus penicillatus. This review synthesizes current knowledge of their biology and ecology, including distribution, habitat, reproduction and development, feeding, predators and anti-predatory adaptations, behavior, sensory modalities, environmental impacts, threats, and conservation. Recent advances focus mainly on larger, commercially valuable species (S. latus, S. tridacnophaga, P. penicillatus), while major gaps remain for oceanic post-embryonic stages and the nektonic nisto postlarva, as well as for smaller, often cryptic species (S. arctus, S. pygmaeus, E. lewinsohni). Addressing these gaps will require targeted research, using modern methodologies, in coastal, deep, and open waters, coupled with citizen-science surveys. While many Indo-Pacific decapods have been established in the Mediterranean, no immigrant lobster species have successfully colonized Levant waters, despite rare records of three non-indigenous species (NIS). However potential NIS predators and shifts in mollusk compositions, the main prey of some native lobsters, may affect the latter. Large lobsters remain targeted by fisheries despite protective regulations, which are not always effective or obeyed. No-take marine protected areas (MPAs) or nature reserves can be effective if sufficiently large and well-managed. Habitat loss from marine construction can be partly compensated by stable, environmentally safe artificial reefs tailored to lobster behavioral ecology. The categories of the studied lobsters’ species in the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species, last updated over fifteen years ago, should be re-evaluated.