Behavior Research Methods Research Articles

How does practice modulate fake-production costs in a basketball task? Analyses of frequency distributions and mixture effects.

The execution of incompatible actions imposes costs on action planning, commonly known as response-response incompatibility-costs. This phenomenon is also evident in sports: A basketball player who performs a pass in one direction whilst orienting the head into the contrary direction (pass with head fake) needs more time to initiate the action as if pass direction and head orientation are the same (pass without head fake).The aim of this study was twofold: First, we present a re-analysis of the data from Böer et al. (Psychological Research 88:523-524, 2024) using mixture effect modelling (Miller, Behavior Research Methods 38:92-106, 2006) explore if fake-production costs manifest continuously (uniform effect) in all participants or if some participants show fake-production costs occasionally but substantially (mixed effect). Second, we collected data of a control group which was analysed with the previous data of the practice group and fitted initiation times (ITs) toan ex-Gaussian distribution.The analysis of mixture effects revealed that most participants exhibited a uniform effect when they didn't have time to mentally prepare the movement. This pattern was not changed by practice, suggesting fake-production costs can't be overcome by practice alone without mental preparation time.The analysis of mean ITs revealed improvements in the practice group but not in the control group, independent of the type of pass performed. The distribution analyses complemented these findings as it showed that the improvement in participants' performance with increasing practice can mainly be attributed to a reduction of the exponential part of the distribution (parameter tau).

SUBTLEX-AR: Arabic word distributional characteristics based on movie subtitles.

This article presents SUBTLEX-AR, a digital database providing an extensive collection of attributes related to Modern Standard Arabic words (Arabic for short). SUBTLEX-AR combines a novel dataset of 120 million word tokens from movie subtitles with 40 million tokens from newspaper articles originally collected in ARALEX (Boudelaa & Marslen-Wilson, Behavior Research Methods, 42, 481-487, 2010), ensuring comprehensive coverage. SUBTLEX-AR provides information about the statistical properties of Arabic words at the orthographic, phonological, morphological, and semantic levels. The database also includes information on sub-word structure properties like bigram and trigram frequencies, as well as lemmas and part-of-speech information along with their corresponding frequencies. The online interface of SUBTLEX-AR allows users either to upload a set of words to receive their properties or to receive a set of words matching constraints on predefined properties. The properties themselves are easily extensible and will be expanded over time. SUBTLEX-AR is freely accessible here: https://subtlexar.uaeu.ac.ae/.

Trace: A research media player measuring real-time audience engagement

Measuring attention and engagement is essential for understanding a wide range of psychological phenomena. Advances in technology have made it possible to measure real-time attention to naturalistic stimuli, providing ecologically valid insight into temporal dynamics. We developed a research protocol called Trace, which records anonymous facial landmarks, expressions, and patterns of movement associated with engagement in screen-based media. Trace runs in a standard internet browser and resembles a contemporary media player. It is embedded in the open-source package PsychoJS (the JavaScript sister library of PsychoPy) hosted via Pavlovia, and can be integrated with a wide range of behavioral research methods. Developed over multiple iterations and tested with over 200 participants in three studies, including the official broadcast of a major theatre production, Trace is a powerful, user-friendly protocol allowing behavioral researchers to capture audience attention and engagement in screen-based media as part of authentic, ecologically valid audience experiences.

Perception of emotion across cultures: Norms of valence, arousal, and sensory experience for 4923 Chinese words translated from English in Warriner et al. (2013).

Perception of emotion conveyed through language is influenced by embodied experiences obtained from social interactions, which may vary across different cultures. To explore cross-cultural differences in the perception of emotion between Chinese and English speakers, this study collected norms of valence and arousal from 322 native Mandarin speakers for 4923 Chinese words translated from Warriner et al., (Behavior Research Methods, 45, 1191-1207, 2013). Additionally, sensory experience ratings for each word were collected. Analysis demonstrated that the reliability of this dataset is satisfactory, as indicated by comparisons with previous datasets. We examined the distributions of valence and arousal for the entire dataset, as well as for positive and negative emotion categories. Further analysis suggested that valence, arousal, and sensory experience correlated with various psycholinguistic variables, including the number of syllables, number of strokes, imageability, familiarity, concreteness, frequency, and age of acquisition. Cross-language comparison indicated that native speakers of Chinese and English differ in their perception of emotional valence and arousal, largely due to cross-cultural variations associated with ecological, sociopolitical, and religious factors. This dataset will be a valuable resource for research examining the impact of emotional and sensory information on Chinese lexical processing, as well as for bilingual research investigating the interplay between language and emotion across different cultural contexts.

Constructing a web-accessible lexical database for core Tongan vocabulary

Abstract According to UNESCO. 2020. World atlas of languages, 3rd edn. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Available at: https://en.wal.unesco.org, the Tongan language is classified as ‘potentially vulnerable.’ This study aimed to identify a core Tongan vocabulary and develop a web-searchable database to support the preservation and accessibility of the language. Due to the lack of a large-scale corpus for calculating lexical frequencies, we utilized vocabulary from the Students’ English-Tongan and Tongan-English Dictionary (Thompson, Richard H. & ‘Ofa Thompson. 1992. The students’ English-Tongan and Tongan-English dictionary. Tonga: Faletohi ‘Otumotu Angl’ofa’), a resource commonly used in Tongan schools. This dictionary compiles words used in both Tongan and English in everyday life. By examining processing speed and accuracy rates in lexical decision tasks, we identified a core Tongan vocabulary. Lexical decision tasks conducted on 4,013 words from the dictionary demonstrated a mean accuracy of 95.40 % and a rapid mean reaction time of 575 ms. A comparative analysis with an equal number of high-frequency words in English (Balota, David A., Melvin J. Yap, Michael J. Cortese, Keith A. Hutchison, Brett Kessler, Bjorn Loftis, James H. Neely, Douglas L. Nelson, Greg B. Simpson & Rebecca Treiman. 2007. The English lexicon project. Behavior Research Methods 39. 445–459) and French (Ferrand, Ludovic, Boris New, Marc Brysbaert, Emmanuel Keuleers, Patrick Bonin, Alain Méot, Maria Augustinova & Christophe Pallier. 2010. The French Lexicon Project: Lexical decision data for 38,840 French words and 38,840 pseudowords. Behavior Research Methods 42. 488–496) revealed that Tongan words were processed more quickly, though with an average accuracy approximately 2 % lower than the English and French words. Despite this slight difference in accuracy, the overall comprehension level for Tongan words remained high, with accuracy exceeding 95 %. Given the faster processing speeds observed, we propose that these words represent a core vocabulary in Tongan. To facilitate access to this vocabulary, we developed a web-based search engine (https://tonganlex.vercel.app/), which provides detailed information on letter (grapheme) count, phonemes, moras, parts of speech, meanings, as well as lexical decision times and accuracies. This study contributes to the accessibility of the Tongan language by making essential lexical information readily available online.

Predicting high variability in imageability ratings across age groups and its influence on visual word recognition.

Imageability, an important word characteristic in the psycholinguistic literature, is typically assessed by asking participants to estimate the ease with which a word can evoke a mental image. Our aim was to explore inter-rater disagreement in normative imageability ratings. We examined the predictors of variability around average imageability ratings for young, middle-aged and older adults (Study 1) and assessed its impact on visual word recognition performance in young adults (Study 2). Analyses of French age-related imageability ratings (Ballot et al., Behavior Research Methods, 54, 196-215, 2022) revealed that inter-rater disagreement around the average imageability value was critically high for most words within the imageability norms, thus questioning the construct validity of the average rating for the most variable items. Variability in ratings changed between age groups (18-25, 26-40, 41-59, and over 60 years) and was associated with words that are longer, less frequent, learnt later in life and less emotional (Study 1). To examine the consequences of elevated standard deviations around the average imageability rating on visual word recognition, we entered this factor in a hierarchical regression alongside classic lexico-semantic predictors. The effect of word-imageability on young adults' lexical decision times (Ferrand et al., Behavior Research Methods, 50, 1285-1307, 2018) remained significant after accounting for inter-rater disagreement in imageability ratings, even when considering the least consensual words (Study 2). We conclude that imageability ratings reliably predict visual word recognition performance in young adults for large datasets, but might require caution for smaller ones. Given imageability rating differences across adulthood, further research investigating age-related differences in language processing is necessary.

Neuroeffects of Microwave EMF Range of Non-Thermal Intensity and Short Exposure

The article presents a generalization and analysis of the results of many years of research by the author of the neuroeffects of weak electromagnetic effects in order to answer the questions: do they exist, what are their phenomenology, neurophysiological mechanism, ways of modification? Using electrophysiological and behavioral research methods, the line of effects of weak EMF from the neuron to the brain, the central nervous system (as a system) and the body is shown. In animal experiments and studies with the participation of volunteer testers, their phenomenology, dependence on parameters, modulation mode, and EMF organization are statistically substantiated. As a result, it is concluded that this is a common stimulus of the central nervous system, which in its influence on the body obeys the laws of physiology about the biological significance of the response, ways of its modification and adaptation mechanisms, which is advisable to take into account.

Simulation studies for methodological research in psychology: A standardized template for planning, preregistration, and reporting.

Simulation studies are widely used for evaluating the performance of statistical methods in psychology. However, the quality of simulation studies can vary widely in terms of their design, execution, and reporting. In order to assess the quality of typical simulation studies in psychology, we reviewed 321 articles published in Psychological Methods, Behavior Research Methods, and Multivariate Behavioral Research in 2021 and 2022, among which 100/321 = 31.2% report a simulation study. We find that many articles do not provide complete and transparent information about key aspects of the study, such as justifications for the number of simulation repetitions, Monte Carlo uncertainty estimates, or code and data to reproduce the simulation studies. To address this problem, we provide a summary of the ADEMP (aims, data-generating mechanism, estimands and other targets, methods, performance measures) design and reporting framework from Morris et al. (2019) adapted to simulation studies in psychology. Based on this framework, we provide ADEMP-PreReg, a step-by-step template for researchers to use when designing, potentially preregistering, and reporting their simulation studies. We give formulae for estimating common performance measures, their Monte Carlo standard errors, and for calculating the number of simulation repetitions to achieve a desired Monte Carlo standard error. Finally, we give a detailed tutorial on how to apply the ADEMP framework in practice using an example simulation study on the evaluation of methods for the analysis of pre-post measurement experiments. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Development of a Marmoset Apparatus for Automated Pulling to study cooperative behaviors

In recent years, the field of neuroscience has increasingly recognized the importance of studying animal behaviors in naturalistic environments to gain deeper insights into ethologically relevant behavioral processes and neural mechanisms. The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), due to its small size, prosocial nature, and genetic proximity to humans, has emerged as a pivotal model toward this effort. However, traditional research methodologies often fail to fully capture the nuances of marmoset social interactions and cooperative behaviors. To address this critical gap, we developed the Marmoset Apparatus for Automated Pulling (MarmoAAP), a novel behavioral apparatus designed for studying cooperative behaviors in common marmosets. MarmoAAP addresses the limitations of traditional behavioral research methods by enabling high-throughput, detailed behavior outputs that can be integrated with video and audio recordings, allowing for more nuanced and comprehensive analyses even in a naturalistic setting. We also highlight the flexibility of MarmoAAP in task parameter manipulation which accommodates a wide range of behaviors and individual animal capabilities. Furthermore, MarmoAAP provides a platform to perform investigations of neural activity underlying naturalistic social behaviors. MarmoAAP is a versatile and robust tool for advancing our understanding of primate behavior and related cognitive processes. This new apparatus bridges the gap between ethologically relevant animal behavior studies and neural investigations, paving the way for future research in cognitive and social neuroscience using marmosets as a model organism.

Development of a Marmoset Apparatus for Automated Pulling to study cooperative behaviors.

In recent years, the field of neuroscience has increasingly recognized the importance of studying animal behaviors in naturalistic environments to gain deeper insights into ethologically relevant behavioral processes and neural mechanisms. The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), due to its small size, prosocial nature, and genetic proximity to humans, has emerged as a pivotal model toward this effort. However, traditional research methodologies often fail to fully capture the nuances of marmoset social interactions and cooperative behaviors. To address this critical gap, we developed the Marmoset Apparatus for Automated Pulling (MarmoAAP), a novel behavioral apparatus designed for studying cooperative behaviors in common marmosets. MarmoAAP addresses the limitations of traditional behavioral research methods by enabling high-throughput, detailed behavior outputs that can be integrated with video and audio recordings, allowing for more nuanced and comprehensive analyses even in a naturalistic setting. We also highlight the flexibility of MarmoAAP in task parameter manipulation which accommodates a wide range of behaviors and individual animal capabilities. Furthermore, MarmoAAP provides a platform to perform investigations of neural activity underlying naturalistic social behaviors. MarmoAAP is a versatile and robust tool for advancing our understanding of primate behavior and related cognitive processes. This new apparatus bridges the gap between ethologically relevant animal behavior studies and neural investigations, paving the way for future research in cognitive and social neuroscience using marmosets as a model organism.

Assessing computational reproducibility in Behavior Research Methods

Psychological science has thrived thanks to new methods and innovative practices. Journals, including Behavior Research Methods (BRM), continue to support the dissemination and evaluation of research assets including data, software/hardware, statistical code, and databases of stimuli. However, such research assets rarely allow for computational reproducibility, meaning they are difficult to reuse. Therefore, in this preregistered report, we explore how BRM’s authors and BRM structures shape the landscape of functional research assets. Our broad research questions concern: (1) How quickly methods and analytical techniques reported in BRM can be used and developed further by other scientists; (2) Whether functionality has improved following changes to BRM journal policy in support of computational reproducibility; (3) Whether we can disentangle such policy changes from changes in reproducibility over time. We randomly sampled equal numbers of papers (N = 204) published in BRM before and after the implementation of policy changes. Pairs of researchers recorded how long it took to ensure assets (data, software/hardware, statistical code, and materials) were fully operational. They also coded the completeness and reusability of the assets. While improvements were observed in all measures, only changes to completeness were altered significantly following the policy changes (d = .37). The effects varied between different types of research assets, with data sets from surveys/experiments showing the largest improvements in completeness and reusability. Perhaps more importantly, changes to policy do appear to have improved the life span of research products by reducing natural decline. We conclude with a discussion of how, in the future, research and policy might better support computational reproducibility within and beyond psychological science.

Development of a Marmoset Apparatus for Automated Pulling (MarmoAAP) to Study Cooperative Behaviors.

In recent years, the field of neuroscience has increasingly recognized the importance of studying animal behaviors in naturalistic environments to gain deeper insights into ethologically relevant behavioral processes and neural mechanisms. The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), due to its small size, prosocial nature, and genetic proximity to humans, has emerged as a pivotal model toward this effort. However, traditional research methodologies often fail to fully capture the nuances of marmoset social interactions and cooperative behaviors. To address this critical gap, we developed the Marmoset Apparatus for Automated Pulling (MarmoAAP), a novel behavioral apparatus designed for studying cooperative behaviors in common marmosets. MarmoAAP addresses the limitations of traditional behavioral research methods by enabling high-throughput, detailed behavior outputs that can be integrated with video and audio recordings, allowing for more nuanced and comprehensive analyses even in a naturalistic setting. We also highlight the flexibility of MarmoAAP in task parameter manipulation which accommodates a wide range of behaviors and individual animal capabilities. Furthermore, MarmoAAP provides a platform to perform investigations of neural activity underlying naturalistic social behaviors. MarmoAAP is a versatile and robust tool for advancing our understanding of primate behavior and related cognitive processes. This new apparatus bridges the gap between ethologically relevant animal behavior studies and neural investigations, paving the way for future research in cognitive and social neuroscience using marmosets as a model organism.

Affordance norms for 2825 concrete nouns.

Objects are commonly described based on their relations to other objects (e.g., associations, semantic similarity, etc.) or their physical features (e.g., birds have wings, feathers, etc.). However, objects can also be described in terms of their actionable properties (i.e., affordances), which reflect interactive relations between actors and objects. While several normed datasets have been developed to categorize various aspects of meaning (e.g., semantic features, cue-target associations, etc.), to date, norms for affordances have not been generated. We address this limitation by developing a set of affordance norms for 2825 concrete nouns. Using an open-response format, we computed affordance strength (AFS; i.e., the probability of an item eliciting a particular action response), affordance proportion (AFP; i.e., the proportion of participants who provided a specific action response), and affordance set size (AFSS; i.e., the total number of unique action responses) for each item. Because our stimuli overlapped with Pexman et al.'s, Behavior Research Methods, 51, 453-466, (2019) body-object interaction norms (BOI), we tested whether AFS, AFP, and AFSS were related to BOI, as objects with more perceived action properties may be viewed as being more interactive. Additionally, we tested the relationship between AFS and AFP and two separate measures of relatedness: cosine similarity (Buchanan et al., Behavior Research Methods, 51, 1849-1863, 2019a, Behavior Research Methods, 51, 1878-1888, 2019b) and forward associative strength (Nelson et al., Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36(3), 402-407, 2004). All analyses, however, revealed weak relationships between affordance measures and existing semantic norms, suggesting that affordance properties reflect a separate construct.

Prospects of Electrocorticography in Neuropharmacological Studies in Small Laboratory Animals.

Electrophysiological methods of research are widely used in neurobiology. To assess the bioelectrical activity of the brain in small laboratory animals, electrocorticography (ECoG) is most often used, which allows the recording of signals directly from the cerebral cortex. To date, a number of methodological approaches to the manufacture and implantation of ECoG electrodes have been proposed, the complexity of which is determined by experimental tasks and logistical capabilities. Existing methods for analyzing bioelectrical signals are used to assess the functional state of the nervous system in test animals, as well as to identify correlates of pathological changes or pharmacological effects. The review presents current areas of applications of ECoG in neuropharmacological studies in small laboratory animals. Traditionally, this method is actively used to study the antiepileptic activity of new molecules. However, the possibility of using ECoG to assess the neuroprotective activity of drugs in models of traumatic, vascular, metabolic, or neurodegenerative CNS damage remains clearly underestimated. Despite the fact that ECoG has a number of disadvantages and methodological difficulties, the recorded data can be a useful addition to traditional molecular and behavioral research methods. An analysis of the works in recent years indicates a growing interest in the method as a tool for assessing the pharmacological activity of psychoactive drugs, especially in combination with classification and prediction algorithms.

Lowering the Stakes: Quasi-Experimental, Mixed-Methods Evaluation of a Restructured Grading Approach in a Graduate Public Health Research Methods Course

In schools and programs of public health, active learning and restructured feedback strategies may improve student learning and course performance compared to traditional lecture-based formats and grading systems. To promote student engagement and active learning, we implemented the team-based learning (TBL) model and a restructured grading approach based on principles of “ungrading” in the required behavioral research methods course of a master’s level public health curriculum. We conducted a quasi-experimental, mixed-methods evaluation of the implementation of restructured grading approach (two sections, n = 46) compared to the traditional grading approach (two sections, n = 34). For the restructured grading sections, numeric grades were removed for weekly team quizzes and team assignments. We administered and analyzed pre- and post-course surveys to compare perceived mastery of course learning objectives, intrinsic motivation, and perceptions of grading and instructor feedback by grading approach. Additionally, we compared course grades and final paper grades by grading approach and conducted two focus groups (one for each approach). The results indicate that students’ learning, satisfaction, and perceptions of the course were mainly equivalent across grading approaches. Students in the restructured grading sections demonstrated a few modestly improved outcomes compared to their peers in the traditional grading courses. Students in the restructured grading sections had slightly higher mean course grades, reported greater increase in confidence to critically evaluate research designs, and found team quizzes to be more helpful. Removing grades for team quizzes and assignments supported student learning and reduced student stress.

Neuropsychological interpretation of disorders of consciousness using data from instrumental (neurophysiological) methods for diagnosing brain activity

The relevance of the problem under consideration is determined by the need to develop and improve interdisciplinary approaches to the diagnosis and rehabilitation of disorders of consciousness in patients with brain pathology. The purpose of the article is an analytical review of the methods of neuropsychological and neurophysiological diagnostics and rehabilitation work with patients in reduced states of consciousness. It is noted that the neuropsychological content of the concept of "consciousness" is insufficiently developed and there is no unified point of view on the brain basis of consciousness, as well as on methodological and procedural limitations that arise when a neuropsychologist works with patients in a vegetative state of consciousness and in a state of minimal consciousness. The problem of consistency of the results of behavioral (neuropsychological) and instrumental (neurophysiological) methods for assessing the level of states of consciousness conducted by different specialists (neuropsychologists, neurologists, neurophysiologists) who are part of a multidisciplinary team is considered. The possibility of combining the procedure of neuropsychological examination and instrumental (neurophysiological) methods in the diagnosis of patients in a vegetative state of consciousness, in a state of minimal consciousness) and the prognosis of restoring the level of consciousness is analyzed. The possibility of an integrated approach to the diagnosis of a state of consciousness associated with a combination of behavioral (observation-based) and objective (instrumental) research methods is confirmed, and possible ways of its implementation are considered.

A comparison of word humor ratings across speakers of North American, British, and Singapore English.

Large-scale collection of lexical-semantic norms for words in a given language has been instrumental in the progress of psycholinguistic research. However, such norms tend to be collected from speakers of the dominant variant or dialect. This research aims to determine if there may be differences across speakers of various dialects of English in the humor of individual words. Engelthaler and Hills (2018, Behavior Research Methods, 50[3], 1116-1124) observed that their humor ratings were most strongly correlated with inverse word frequency: Less frequent words tended to be rated as more humorous. We hypothesized that words that are less frequently occurring in a given English dialect should be perceived as more humorous by speakers of the same dialect. We selected words of relatively higher and lower frequencies across various corpora of North American, British, or Singapore English, and presented these words to participants who were native English speakers of North American, British, or Singapore English. Study 1 compared humor ratings of North Americans and Singaporeans; Study 2 compared humor ratings of North Americans and the British. Analyses of participants' random slope coefficients of frequency extracted from cumulative link mixed-effects models indicated that humor ratings were more strongly (and inversely) associated with the word's frequency in the corpora that aligned with the rater's English dialect. These results provide evidence that people are sensitive to the statistics of their specific language environment, and importantly suggest that creators of lexical-semantic norm databases should consider how the cultural, historical, or sociopolitical context of raters might influence the nature of their ratings.

Comparing child word associations to adult associative norms: Evidence for child-specific associations with a strong priming effect in 3-year-olds

Investigating how infants first establish relationships between words is a necessary step towards understanding how an interconnected network of semantic relationships develops in the adult lexical-semantic system. Stimuli selection for these child studies is critical since words must be both familiar and highly imageable. However, there has been a reliance on adult word association norms to inform stimuli selection in English infant studies to date, as no resource currently exists for child-specific word associations. We present three experiments that explore the strength of word–word relationships in 3-year-olds. Experiment 1 collected children’s word associations (WA) (N = 150; female = 84, L1 = British English) and compared them to adult associative norms (Moss & Older, 1996; Nelson et al., 2004 (Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36(3), 402–407)). Experiment 2 replicated WAs from Experiment 1 in an online adaptation of the task (N = 24: 13 female, L1 = British English). Both experiments indicated a high proportion of child-specific WAs not represented in adult norms (Moss & Older, 1996; Nelson et al., 2004 (Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36(3), 402–407)). Experiment 3 tested noun–noun WAs from these responses in an online semantic priming study (N = 40: 19 female, L1 = British English) and found that association type modulated priming (F(2.57, 100.1) = 13.13, p <. 0001, generalized η2 = .19). This research presents a resource of child-specific imageable noun–noun word pair stimuli suitable for testing young children in word recognition and semantic priming studies.

Behavioral Studies of Zebrafish Reveal a New Perspective on the Reproductive Toxicity of Micro- and Nanoplastics.

The escalating prevalence of microplastics and nanoplastics in aquatic environments is a major challenge affecting the behavior and reproductive health of aquatic organisms while posing potential risks to human health and ecosystems. This review focuses on the neurobehavioral changes and reproductive toxicity of MNPs in zebrafish and their relationships. At the same time, the neurobehavioral changes caused by MNPs were studied, and the synergistic effects of the interaction of these pollutants with other environmental contaminants were explored. In addition, zebrafish, as a model organism, provide valuable insights into the subtle but important effects of MNPs on reproductive behavior, which is critical for understanding reproductive success, suggesting that behavioral changes can serve as an early biomarker of reproductive toxicity. In addition, based on classical endocrine disruptor models and behavioral research methods, the current status of the research on the reproductive toxicity of MNPs in zebrafish was reviewed, which further indicated that the behavioral parameters of zebrafish can be used as an effective and rapid tool to evaluate the reproductive toxicity of MNPs. However, behavioral methods for rapidly assessing the toxicity of MNPs are still an area of exploration. To address limitations and challenges in the current scope of research, this review outlines future research directions with the aim of improving our understanding of the environmental and health impacts of MNPs. This work aims to inform targeted environmental policies and advance public health strategies to address the growing challenge of MNPs pollution.

Minimizing observer bias in animal behavior studies revisited: Improvement, but a long way to go

AbstractFor decades, texts on methods in animal behavior research have stressed the need for observers of behavior to work to minimize potential unconscious biases in their coding of data. Two major ways of minimizing these biases are to carry out data coding blind to the key comparisons being made in the study and to have high inter‐observer reliability. Over 10 years ago, Burghardt et al. (2012, Ethology, 118, 511) reviewed five major journals in the field of animal behavior and coded randomly selected articles from five decadal volumes (1970 to 2010). That earlier article found poor rates of reporting these two common methods for minimizing potential biases. Here, we carried out similar coding for the 2020 volumes from those same five journals. We found that rates of reporting have increased in all five journals – some substantially. However, rates of reporting still lag behind the journal Infancy, which publishes research on human infant development and relies on many of the same behavioral observation and coding methods used by animal behavior researchers. Given increased calls for transparency and reproducibility in many different fields of scientific study, we argue that we – researchers, reviewers, and editors – can and need to do better at making sure we are actively conducting research in ways to minimize potential observer biases.