Bee Conservation Research Articles

Planting native wildflowers improves vacant land as bee habitat in a post‐industrial city

Abstract As people leave post‐industrial cities in search of better economic opportunities, abandoned homes are demolished and transformed into vacant lots. These greenspaces have been demonstrated to provide habitat for urban wildlife and supply ecosystem services to communities. In the post‐industrial city of Cleveland, Ohio, USA, approximately 37% of the state's bee fauna (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) has been collected within vacant lots. Our goal was to determine whether planting native wildflowers (‘pocket prairies’) on vacant land would improve these sites as bee habitat. We hypothesised that pocket prairies would support a greater proportion of the regional bee species pool, represented by Metropark grassland bee communities in the suburban landscape, compared to unaltered vacant lots. Using pan traps and hand vacuums, we sampled bees in each treatment from June to September 2019. We collected 1087 bees representing 24 genera and 81 species. Bees visited over 30 floral species, including native wildflowers and urban spontaneous vegetation. Metropark grasslands supported a higher bee species richness and diversity than urban pocket prairies. Both Metropark grasslands and pocket prairies supported a higher bee abundance, diversity and species richness than urban vacant lots. Synthesis and applications: Despite the substantially smaller extent of the pocket prairies, these habitats supported a similar bee abundance to the Metropark grasslands. Bee foraging on seeded native forbs also increased from representing <5% to >60% of plant–bee interactions over the course of this project, highlighting the importance of habitat establishment for urban bee conservation. Our results suggest that greening vacant land can improve post‐industrial cities as bee habitat.

Answering key bumble bee conservation questions by studying discovered wild nests: A Bombus affinis case study

Abstract The nesting ecology of wild bumble bees is not well resolved, but information learned from discovered nests can be of great conservation value. Data collected at nests on foraging patterns, caste‐specific behaviour and health (e.g., pathogens) are invaluable for understanding bumble bee behaviour and ecology, but difficult to decipher solely from foraging observations away from the nest. Post‐senescence nest excavation allows the estimation of colony size, caste numbers, documents pest incidence and provides opportunities to examine nest material for stressors (e.g., pesticides) and to use nest material for training purposes (e.g., conservation dogs). Wild nests are often found opportunistically, and there is an absence of standardised guidance on data collection. We provide an action plan to ensure the data collection is comparable across studies. This framework includes key conservation questions and methodological guidelines for both for in situ and post‐season nest data collection and is ordered by increasing complexity of data collection methods. To illustrate our framework, we provide an example with recently discovered Bombus affinis (rusty patched bumble bee) nests. Through observations at B. affinis nests, we discovered novel patterns of activity, changing activity levels over time, the timing of male and gyne production, variable timing in nest senescence, and associations of nests with past rodent activity. Although individual nest discoveries may be of limited value in forwarding conservation strategies, the aggregate collections of many similar datasets can be of critical importance for species of conservation concern.

Standardized protocol for collecting community-level bee data

A key component of assessing bee biodiversity patterns and supporting bee conservation is documenting bee communities. When integrated with additional ecological data, community-level data help reveal the relative impact of local- and landscape-scale factors on bee taxa. As such, these data can inform management decisions to support bee diversity and mitigate environmental drivers of decline. However, methods for sampling bee communities vary greatly across projects, making it difficult to compare existing datasets or design new, interoperable studies. Here, we provide a standardized protocol for collecting community-level bee biodiversity data and offer guidance on inventorying, surveying, and monitoring of bee communities. We also present case studies to illustrate how different components of the protocol could be implemented. Although we discuss the benefits of collecting physical specimens, we emphasize the importance of responsible collecting and highlight key strategies to minimize environmental impact while maximizing the value of the work in new projects. This protocol is part of a series developed in association with the U.S. National Native Bee Monitoring Network to standardize bee monitoring practices.

Leveraging Transcriptional Signatures of Diverse Stressors for Bumble Bee Conservation.

Organisms in nature are subjected to a variety of stressors, often simultaneously. Foremost among stressors of key pollinators are pathogens, poor nutrition and climate change. Landscape transcriptomics can be used to decipher the relative role of stressors, provided there are unique signatures of stress that can be reliably detected in field specimens. In this study, we identify biomarkers of bumble bee (Bombus impatiens) responses to key stressors by first subjecting bees to various short-term stressors (cold, heat, nutrition and pathogen challenge) in a laboratory setting and assessing their transcriptome responses. Using random forest classification on this whole transcriptome data, we were able to discriminate each stressor. Our best model (tissue-specific model trained on a subset of important genes) correctly predicted known stressors with 92% accuracy. We then applied this random forest model to wild-caught bumble bees sampled across a heatwave event at two sites in central Pennsylvania, US, expected to differ in baseline temperature and floral resource availability. Transcriptomes of bees sampled during the heat wave's peak showed signatures of heat stress, while bees collected in the relatively cooler morning periods showed signatures of starvation and cold stress. We failed to pick up on signals of heat stress shortly after the heatwave, suggesting this set of biomarkers is more useful for identifying acute stressors than long-term monitoring of chronic, landscape-level stressors. We highlight future directions to fine-tune landscape transcriptomics towards the development of better stress biomarkers that can be used both for conservation and improving understanding of stressor impacts on bees.

How many bees fit in the city? A spatial ecological case study to conserve urban wild bees

Pollination is crucial for biodiversity and food security, with bees playing a significant role. The growing popularity of urban beekeeping is leading to increasing honeybee densities in cities, raising concerns about competition for pollen and nectar with wild bees due to limited foraging resources in densely urbanized areas. To assess the current bee occurrences of wild and honeybees in urbanized and protected areas of a Central European city, we focused on the ecological similarities between honeybees and wild bees. We compiled an inventory of 462 wild bee species documented since 1990 in Vienna (Austria) and conducted a survey of apiary locations in cooperation with beekeepers. We calculated apiary densities and indices for species richness, rarity, and, based on flower-visiting traits, the trait similarity between honeybees and wild bees. We found that approximately four times more honeybee colonies were kept in central Vienna in 2023 than the habitat may support. In parts of Vienna’s nature conservation areas, the number of colonies also exceeded the density of 3.5 colonies per km² recommended by the literature. Results indicate a significant spatial overlap of high apiary densities and wild bee hotspots, particularly in urban nature conservation areas like Natura 2000 protected areas. In Natura 2000 areas, the trait similarity of rare wild bee species was significantly increased, indicating a potential elevated competition between wild bees and honeybees for floral resources. This study highlights the need for spatial planning to balance urban beekeeping and wild bee conservation, recommending actions to match habitat quality to apiary densities to mitigate competitive pressures.

TOWARDS BIOCULTURAL CONSERVATION OF STINGLESS BEES IN CÓRDOBA, VERACRUZ, MEXICO

Based on biological and ethnobiological data from 2020 to 2022, this study provides a base line for the biocultural conservation of stingless bees. These bees in Mexico, like many other pollinators, are facing population declines and this biological loss impacts traditional human knowledge and its uses. This paper aims to record the traditional ecological knowledge about these bees to establish sustainable meliponiculture. Cultural values were obtained through participant observation, interviews, free listing, and structured questionnaires, and a bee inventory was conducted. Data were analyzed using Smith’s Prominence Index and descriptive statistics using SPSS v. 25 software. Inhabitants recognized 21 floral visitors, including invertebrates, mammals and birds. ‘Tenchales’ (local term for Scaptotrigona mexicana), hummingbirds and butterflies are the most culturally prominent floral visitors. The meliponini belonging to Scaptotrigona mexicana were recognized as ‘tenchal’, although different common names were obtained for other meliponini, denoting morphological and behavioral differences among the following species: Partamona bilineata, Plebeia pulchra, Scaptotrigona pectoralis, Scaura argyrea, Trigona corvina, Trigona fulviventris, Trigona fuscipennis and Trigona nigerrima. Although the research area is located near a large city, there is substantial diversity of melliferous flora, floral visitors, and traditional ecological knowledge used by the inhabitants in their daily activities. Stingless bees are perceived as the primary pollinators that help maintain their forests and thus help sustain their lives. This paper promotes better awareness of bioculturally effective community conservation strategies.

Mass‐flowering lupin has positive, but limited, effect on wild bee conservation in agricultural landscapes

Mass‐flowering lupin has positive, but limited, effect on wild bee conservation in agricultural landscapes

Commercial honey bee keeping compromises wild bee conservation in Mediterranean nature reserves

Commercial honey bee keeping compromises wild bee conservation in Mediterranean nature reserves

Connecting education and persuasion: insights from cognitive structure among college students in a pollinator conservation course

There are long traditions of research on the implications of cognitive structure for education and persuasion, respectively. Even though both are vital for understanding pro-environmental attitude and behavior change, however, these literatures have rarely been brought into conversation. As a preliminary step in this direction, the present study explored connections between cognitive structure and behavior change among college students participating in a semester-long course on bee conservation. Concepts central to students’ thinking about bee conservation were identified in two ways: via associative attitude networks and via semantic networks. Attitude network structure was fairly stable, but showed some notable changes due to class participation. Furthermore, both networks were partially successful in identifying concepts strongly associated with behavior change over time, though each also made incorrect predictions. With continued refinement, the results suggest that a structure-focused approach may have promise as a foundation for improved strategies to promote pro-environmental behavior change.

Current Status, Challenges, and Perspectives in the Conservation of Native Honeybees and Beekeeping in Cambodia.

The four honeybee species native to Cambodia-Apis dorsata, Apis cerana, Apis florea, and Apis andreniformis-play a vital role in ecosystem health and agricultural productivity through their pollination activities. Beekeeping in Cambodia has primarily developed around the introduced species Apis mellifera. However, it remains underdeveloped compared to neighboring countries, with wild honey collection continuing to play a significant role. Although native bees are not at immediate risk of extinction, their crucial ecological and socio-economic roles, coupled with the threats to their populations, necessitate the urgent implementation of conservation policies. The beekeeping sector in Cambodia faces numerous challenges that hinder its development. These include a lack of documentation and official data, limited access to productive apiaries, inappropriate pesticide practices, insufficient knowledge about bee health, diseases, and parasites, inadequate organization and representation of beekeepers, the high cost of Cambodian honey, and a lack of consumer awareness and trust in local bee products. This paper provides an overview of the status and distribution of honeybee species, along with the production, value chain, and trade of bee products in Cambodia. It examines the challenges of conserving native honeybees and developing the beekeeping sector while proposing strategies to strengthen bee conservation and support the growth of beekeeping in the country. Key recommendations focus on integrating bee conservation strategies with broader conservation goals, such as reducing deforestation, promoting sustainable agriculture, and regulating the consumption of wild bee brood. Key strategies for the development of beekeeping are documenting and conserving bee floral resources and habitats, reducing the use of bee-toxic pesticides, developing research and training capacities in beekeeping, regulating bee imports, and enhancing quality and authenticity testing facilities. Additionally, building capacity among honey value chain stakeholders in areas such as quality control, authenticity, processing, packaging, and marketing is essential.

ApisTox: a new benchmark dataset for the classification of small molecules toxicity on honey bees

The global decline in bee populations poses significant risks to agriculture, biodiversity, and environmental stability. To bridge the gap in existing data, we introduce ApisTox, a comprehensive dataset focusing on the toxicity of pesticides to honey bees (Apis mellifera). This dataset combines and leverages data from existing sources such as ECOTOX and PPDB, providing an extensive, consistent, and curated collection that surpasses the previous datasets. ApisTox incorporates a wide array of data, including toxicity levels for chemicals, details such as time of their publication in literature, and identifiers linking them to external chemical databases. This dataset may serve as an important tool for environmental and agricultural research, but also can support the development of policies and practices aimed at minimizing harm to bee populations. Finally, ApisTox offers a unique resource for benchmarking molecular property prediction methods on agrochemical compounds, facilitating advancements in both environmental science and chemoinformatics. This makes it a valuable tool for both academic research and practical applications in bee conservation.

Bees from Southern Brazil: diversity, floral visitation, and conservation

ABSTRACT Understanding bee diversity and their relationships with plants is crucial for conserving pollination services. Here, we focused on the southern region of Brazil to: i) provide an overview of bee diversity based on fauna inventories, ii) compile studies on floral visitation in natural and agricultural systems, and iii) discuss the threats and conservation status of bee fauna, particularly through endangered species lists., we conducted a systematic review of the literature, and retrieved 138 papers. Among the 68 systematic bee inventories, most were carried out in Paraná, followed by Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul. Studies indicate bee richness up to 400 species at regional scale (multiple localities). Of the total visitation studies, 48 involved cultivated plants, while 22 were focused on non-cultivated species. Canola was the most researched among the 16 species of cultivated plants, appearing in nine papers, followed by soybean with eight articles. In the case of non-cultivated plants, a total of 23 plant species were studied, with Bromeliaceae and Orchidaceae as the most common families. We identified a need for increased research efforts in the western regions of the Atlantic Forest, as well as in the Cerrado and Pampa biomes based on the scarcity of initiatives in these areas. There is a significant gap in our knowledge regarding the pollination of neglected crops and native plants. Regarding bee conservation, comprehensive monitoring and data collection efforts are urgently needed to assess the status of bee populations and identify areas where conservation actions are most critical.

Functional leaf and plant use by leafcutter bees: Implications for management and conservation.

Wild solitary bees face a host of challenges from the simplification of landscapes and biodiversity loss to invasive species and urbanization. Pollinator researchers and restoration workers thus far gave much attention to increase flower cover to reduce the impact of these anthropogenic pressures. Over 30% of bee species need nonfloral resources such as leaves and resin for their survival and reproduction. However, the importance of leaves in bee ecology, particularly for leafcutter bees, has received very little attention. Leafcutter bees have global distribution and cut leaves for constructing brood chambers. We have very little information for (a) what bees use and do not use for foraging leaves and (b) what leaf and plant traits and plant community traits drive plant preference and plant usage. To fill this gap and recommend plants for leafcutter bee conservation, we examined 13,062 plants of 612 species and 107 families distributed in 165 plant communities of nine towns/cities of four south Indian states. The plant community of nine locations and four states was quite dissimilar, but had similar proportion of native and exotic plants. The probability of a plant foraged for leaf is governed by its clade, family, nativity, and leaf dimension, particularly the leaf width. Bees have a clear preference for plants of common families, such as Fabaceae, Phyllanthaceae, and Meliaceae for foraging leaves, but bees going to plants of distant lineages, including rare species and families is not rare. At the same time, bees also avoided plants of several cosmopolitan families, such as Apocynaceae, Moraceae, Sapotaceae, and Asteraceae, among others. Bees preferred exotic plants more to native plants. The plant usage in communities is predicted by species richness, proportion of Fabaceae plants in communities, and proportion of herbs; plant diversity and abundance are not crucial drivers. Our study suggests that the bees' preference for leaf-foraging plants is not random, but governed by leaf, plant, and plant community traits. The preference for exotic plants is helpful for planning urban and homestead greening projects as they are dominated by exotics.

What Should We Teach to Promote Bee Conservation Awareness? Insights from the Perception of Brazilian Middle School Students.

Pollination service is a global issue with significant impacts on ecosystem maintenance and food production. The decline of beeshas highlighted the importance of public awareness and conservation policies to ensure food security and thesustainable use of such services. In this study, we investigated the awareness about bee diversity and pollination services among young students in a medium-sized city in the Cerrado region, the main agricultural frontier in Central Brazil. We applied questionnaires and multiple correspondence analyses to evaluate students' information on the subject, in three middle schools in Uberlândia-MG. Honeybees, a non-native species in Brazil, were the most cited bee by students (47.8%). While most students believed that bees should be protected (93.14%), only 66.66% recognized their importance to humans. Although 72.28% of the participants claimed to know what pollination is, nearly half of them (49%) did not fully understand the process and considered it unimportant for people's lives. Participants who recognized solitary native bees showed a better understanding of the pollination process. Our findings indicate that schools, the internet, and television are the main sources of information on bees for young students in Central Brazil. Understanding people's perception of bees can guide environmental education and citizen science projects and inform decision-making for biodiversity conservation actions. In this article, we identify essential elements for teaching a holistic view of bees and pollination promoting the comprehension of their importance.

Editorial: Opportunities and challenges for wild bee conservation

Editorial: Opportunities and challenges for wild bee conservation

Bee-friendly interventions: the barriers and opportunities affecting urban residents’ conservation of wild bees in Gardens

Wild bees are experiencing population declines globally. Despite urbanisation replacing habitat and forage with synthetic materials, urban residential gardens have the potential to become pollinator hotspots, increasing bee diversity and abundance. We explored public knowledge and attitudes towards bees, and ‘bee-friendly’ interventions (BFIs) conducted by urban residents. We reviewed the motivations and barriers which influence or prevent this, using the town of Woking, England, as a case study. An online questionnaire was distributed in 2023 to residents with gardens or balconies. Results from 286 surveys showed 98.3% of respondents performed ≥ 1 BFI and the most common action was planting “pollinator-friendly” plants (75.9%). Sentiment towards bees positively correlated to the number of BFIs performed, and 94.8% of respondents felt positively about bees. Most participants indicated altruistic motivations behind their performance of BFIs.Implications for insect conservation: Though the public are altruistically motivated to undertake conservation for wild bees, and most are performing at least one BFI, lack of knowledge and understanding is the biggest barrier preventing conservation action. Governments, policymakers, and plant retailers should direct citizens to wild bee conservation organisations to engage and inform the public about bee ecology and improve habitat provision within neighbourhoods.

The Beehives of Stingless Bees in Manipur, India and Their Ecological and Economic Impact to Farmers

Stingless bees (Trigona spp.) are important pollinators in tropical and subtropical ecosystems, playing a vital role in maintaining biodiversity and agricultural productivity. In Manipur, traditional bamboo beehives are used to house these bees, reflecting a culturally significant and sustainable approach to beekeeping. This study examines the ecological and economic impacts of stingless bee beekeeping with bamboo hives in Manipur, using data from field surveys, interviews, and honey production analysis. The results show that stingless bees contribute to a 25-30% increase in crop yield through enhanced pollination. Bamboo beekeeping also generates an average household income increase of 20-35% from the sale of honey and other products. The demand of stingless bee honey is becoming high due to its unique medicinal properties. Despite these benefits, challenges such as habitat loss, climate change, and technical limitations persist. The findings suggest that integrating traditional knowledge with modern beekeeping practices could address these challenges and optimize the ecological and economic potential of stingless bee conservation in the region. This paper emphasizes for supportive policies and further research to fully realize the potential of bamboo beekeeping in Manipur.

Best management practices for bee conservation in forest openings

AbstractNative bees are an ecologically diverse group of pollinators in global decline due at least in part to invasive species, pesticides, and habitat loss. Although guidelines exist for land managers to restore pollinator habitat, these “best management practices” (BMPs) include other pollinator taxa that may have different requirements than bees, do not give particular attention to rare bee species, or describe practices that are impractical for land managers. Using co‐production science, our team of land managers and researchers sampled bee communities in 100 wildlife openings on six National Forests (NF) within the Great Lakes Basin of the United States during 2017–2019. We found that bee communities responded to site factors and management practices, including prescribed fire, mechanical methods (e.g., felling, brushhogging, mowing), herbicides, and pollinator plantings. Bee abundance, diversity, and rarity were strongly related to soil properties, landscape context, and the plant community, including small‐statured woody species, which collectively informed our BMPs. For instance, mechanical treatments were most beneficial for openings with clayey or organic soils while prescribed fire was most effective in openings with well‐drained soils. Our BMPs highlight effects of treatment combinations, including negative effects on rare species when herbicides were combined with plantings and positive effects on abundance and rare species when prescribed fire was combined with mechanical treatments. Since our BMPs were generated in collaboration with land managers, they better conform to their needs and constraints, contributing to more effective native bee conservation.

Towards a conceptual design framework for bee botanic gardens: integrating perceptions on urban biodiversity into landscape design processes

Botanic gardens, valued for their live plant collections, have evolved into scientific institutions with roles in conservation, education, research, and public recreation. This study repositions botanic gardens as essential urban habitats enhancing biodiversity, focusing particularly on their support for both European honeybees and Western Australian native bees. This research addresses the intersection of urbanisation and bee conservation by developing a conceptual design for a bee-friendly botanic garden in Yanchep, Western Australia. It employs semi-structured interviews and research through design (RtD) methods to collaborate with local beekeepers, landscape architects, and ecologists. A systematic design framework for a bee-friendly botanic garden in Yanchep, Western Australia was proposed, encompassing the entire design process, from scope to detailed considerations, and aiming to be applicable across other parts of Western Australia and Australia. The research highlights three key findings: the necessity of interdisciplinary collaboration, the importance of defining the garden type and functions early in the design process, and the need for diverse plant selection and nesting options to support native bees.

Wild Bee Conservation in Viticulture: Effects of Semi-Natural Habitats, Organic Management, and Fungicide Reduction.

In agricultural landscapes, the removal of semi-natural habitats (SNH) and the intensive use of pesticides contribute to declines of biodiversity, including crop pollinators such as bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea). However, effects of pesticide use and landscape characteristics on bees have rarely been studied together. In this study, we investigated how SNH in the surrounding landscape, organic and conventional management, and the reduction of fungicides affect wild bee diversity in 32 vineyards in southwest Germany. We used yellow pan traps to sample bees in a crossed design of management (organic vs. conventional) and fungicide use (reduced in fungus-resistant grape varieties vs. regular) along a gradient with increasing proportions of SNH in the surrounding landscape. Higher proportions of SNH influenced species composition of bees and increased the abundance and richness of above-ground-nesting species. Organic vineyards had a 49% higher abundance of bees compared to conventional vineyards. The reduction of fungicides did not affect bee diversity nor abundance. The absence of a response to fungicide intensity suggests that the benefit of organically managed vineyards to wild bees was through differences in their vegetation management, which is in line with the positive response of bees to SNH in the surrounding landscape. Synthesis and applications: Our study underlines that the local provision of diverse vegetation in vineyards and the landscape-scale provision of suitable SNH are key factors for wild bee conservation in viticulture.