Battery Energy Storage Research Articles

SWOT-AHP Analysis of the Importance and Adoption of Pumped-Storage Hydropower

Energy storage technologies are becoming increasingly important when it comes to maintaining the balance between electricity generation and consumption, especially with the increasing share of variable renewable energy sources (VRES). Pumped storage hydropower plants (PSHs) are currently the largest form of energy storage at the grid level. The aim of this study is to investigate the importance and prospects of using PSHs as part of the energy transition to decarbonize energy sources. A comparison was made between PSHs and battery energy storage systems (BESSs) in terms of technical, economic, and ecological aspects. To identify the key factors influencing the wider adoption of PSHs, a combined approach using SWOT analysis (which assesses strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) and the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) as a decision support tool was applied. Regulatory and market uncertainties (13.54%) and financial inequality (12.77%) rank first and belong to the “Threats” group, with energy storage capacity (10.11%) as the most important factor from the “Strengths” group and increased demand for energy storage (9.01%) as the most important factor from the “Opportunities” group. Forecasts up to 2050 show that the capacity of PSHs must be doubled to enable the integration of 80% of VRES into the grids. The study concludes that PSHs play a key role in the energy transition, especially for long-term energy storage and grid stabilization, while BESSs offer complementary benefits for short-term storage and fast frequency regulation. Recommendations to policymakers include the development of clear, accelerated project approval procedures, financial incentives, and support for hybrid PSH systems to accelerate the energy transition and meet decarbonization targets.

Analysis of Grid Scale Storage Effectiveness for a West African Interconnected Transmission System

The West Africa Power Pool (WAPP) Interconnected Transmission System (WAPPITS) has faced challenges with frequency control due to limited primary frequency control reserves (PFRs). Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESSs) have been identified as a possible solution to address frequency control challenges and to support growing levels of variable renewable energy in the WAPPITS. This paper uses a dynamic PSS/E grid simulation to evaluate the effectiveness of BESSs and conventional power plants for the maximum N-1 contingency scenario in WAPPITS—the loss of 400 MW of generation. BESSs outperform conventional power plants in fast frequency response; a BESS-only PFR mix produces the best technical performance for the metrics analyzed. However, this approach does not have the best marginal cost; a balanced mix of BESSs and conventional reserves achieves adequate performance on all metrics to meet grid requirements. This hybrid approach combines BESSs’ rapid power injection with the lower cost of conventional units, resulting in improved nadir frequencies (e.g., 49.70–49.76 Hz), faster settling times (1.00–2.20 s), and cost efficiency. The study indicates that an optimal approach to frequency control should include a combination of regulatory reforms and coordinated reserve procurement that includes BESS assets. Regulatory reforms should require or incentivize conventional plant to provide PFRs, possibly through creation of a (new to WAPPITS) market for ancillary services. While not a comprehensive analysis of all variables, these findings provide critical insights for policymakers and system operators.

From wastes to resources: the future of residential EV batteries in China through cascade utilization, recycling, and energy storage.

From wastes to resources: the future of residential EV batteries in China through cascade utilization, recycling, and energy storage.

Analysis of Primary and Secondary Frequency Control Challenges in African Transmission System

This study analyzed the frequency control challenges within the West Africa Power Pool Interconnected Transmission System (WAPPITS) as it plans to incorporate variable renewable energy (VRE) resources, such as wind and solar energy. Concerns center on the ability of WAPPITS primary frequency control reserves to adapt to high VRE penetration given the synchronization and frequency control problems experienced by the three separate synchronous blocks of WAPPITS. Optimizing solutions requires a better understanding of WAPPITS’ current frequency control approach. This study used questionnaires to understand operators’ practical experience with frequency control and compared these observations to field tests at power plants and frequency response metrics during system events. Eight (8) of ten (10) Transmission System Operators (TSOs) indicated that primary frequency control service was implemented in the TSO, but nine (9) of ten TSOs indicated that the reserves provided were inadequate to meet system needs. Five (5) of ten (10) respondents answered “yes” to the provision of secondary frequency control service, while only one (1) indicated that secondary reserves were adequate. Three (3) TSOs indicated they have AGC (Automatic Generation Control) installed in the control room, but none have implemented it for secondary frequency control. The results indicate a significant deficiency in primary control reserves, resulting in a reliance on under-frequency load shedding for primary frequency control. Additionally, the absence of an AGC system for secondary frequency regulation required manual intervention to restore frequency after events. To ensure the effectiveness of battery energy storage systems (BESSs) and the reliable operation of the WAPPITS with a higher penetration of inverter-based VRE, this paper recommends (a) implementing and enforcing basic primary frequency control structures through regional regulation and (b) establishing an ancillary services market to mobilize secondary frequency control resources.

Levelized Cost of Storage (LCOS) of Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) Deployed for Photovoltaic Curtailment Mitigation

Despite the growing application of storage for curtailment mitigation, its cost-effectiveness remains uncertain. This study evaluates the Levelized Cost of Storage, which also represents an implicit threshold revenue, for Lithium-ion Battery Energy Storage Systems deployed for photovoltaic curtailment mitigation. Specifically, the LCOS is assessed—using a mathematical simulation model—for various curtailment scenarios defined by maximum levels (10–40%), hourly profiles (upper limit and proportional), and growth rates (2, 5, and 10 years) at three storage system capacities (0.33, 0.50, 0.67 h) and two European locations (Cagliari and Berlin). The results indicate that the LCOS of batteries deployed for curtailment mitigation is, on average, comparable to that of systems used for bulk energy storage applications (155–320 EUR/MWh) in Cagliari (180–410 EUR/MWh). In contrast, in Berlin, the lower and more variable photovoltaic generation results in significantly higher LCOS values (200–750 EUR/MWh). For both locations, the lowest LCOS values (180 EUR/MWh for Cagliari and 200 EUR/MWh for Berlin), obtained for very high curtailment levels (40%), are significantly above average electricity prices (108 EUR/MWh for Cagliari and 78 EUR/MWh for Berlin), suggesting that BESSs for curtailment mitigation are competitive in the day-ahead market only if their electricity is sold at a significantly higher price. This is particularly true for lower curtailment levels. Indeed, for a curtailment level of 10% reached in 5 years, the LCOS for a 0.5 h BESS capacity is approximately 255 EUR/MWh in Cagliari and 460 EUR/MWh in Berlin. The study further highlights that the curtailment scenario significantly affects the Levelized Cost of Storage, with the upper limit hourly profile being more conservative.

Operational strategies for EV fast-charging and their impact on power grid and renewable integration

Electric vehicles (EVs) are a transformative force in sustainable transportation, but their widespread adoption depends critically on the development of robust and intelligent fast-charging infrastructure. This paper presents a comprehensive review of EV fast-charging station (FCS) operational strategies and analyzes their multidimensional impact on modern power grids, focusing on grid stability, energy optimization, and renewable integration from 2014 to 2024. The review consolidates over 100 high-impact studies and technical databases. Our study identifies that FCS can recharge EVs up to 80% within 20–30 min, which significantly improves user convenience but simultaneously introduces peak demand surges, voltage instability, and transformer stress in distribution networks. Simulation results from referenced studies show voltage drops of up to 12%, with transformer aging rates increasing by 30–40% under uncoordinated charging scenarios. High-power charging stations (>350 kW) pose particularly severe challenges, requiring infrastructure upgrades and intelligent load management systems. This review further explores the strategic placement of charging stations using optimization techniques, including particle swarm optimization (PSO), genetic algorithms (GA), and Monte Carlo simulations. These techniques have demonstrated power loss reductions of up to 33% and improved voltage stability in modeled IEEE 33-bus systems. Additionally, integrating photovoltaic systems with battery energy storage systems can meet up to 69% of the station's energy needs, significantly reducing grid dependency. We also highlight emerging technologies, including vehicle-to-grid (V2G), dynamic pricing models, and AI-based predictive control systems, showing their potential to enhance both grid performance and economic viability. The review concludes by proposing a roadmap that combines operational strategy development, renewable integration, and smart grid control to support scalable and sustainable EV fast-charging infrastructure globally.

Optimal Placement and Sizing of Battery Energy Storage System in Renewable Energy System Integrated Distribution Systems

Optimal Placement and Sizing of Battery Energy Storage System in Renewable Energy System Integrated Distribution Systems

Stochastic Operation of BESS and MVDC Link in Distribution Networks Under Uncertainty

This study introduces a stochastic optimization framework designed to effectively manage power flows in flexible medium-voltage DC (MVDC) link systems within distribution networks (DNs). The proposed approach operates in coordination with a battery energy storage system (BESS) to enhance the overall efficiency and reliability of the power distribution. Given the inherent uncertain characteristics associated with forecasting errors in photovoltaic (PV) generation and load demand, the study employs a distributionally robust chance-constrained optimization technique to mitigate the potential operational risks. To achieve a cooperative and optimized control strategy for MVDC link systems and BESS, the proposed method incorporates a stochastic relaxation of the reliability constraints on bus voltages. By strategically adjusting the conservativeness of these constraints, the proposed framework seeks to maximize the cost-effectiveness of DN operations. The numerical simulations demonstrate that relaxing the strict reliability constraints enables the distribution system operator to optimize the electricity imports more economically, thereby improving the overall financial performance while maintaining system reliability. Through case studies, we showed that the proposed method improves the operational cost by up to 44.7% while maintaining 96.83% bus voltage reliability under PV and load power output uncertainty.

Dual Regulation of Surface Residual Alkali and Sodium Layer Spacing for Enhanced Air Stability and Sodium-Ion Kinetics in O3-Type Cathodes.

Cost-effective sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are an important complementary technology to lithium-ion batteries for large-scale energy storage. O3-type layered oxides are promising cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries, but their development is constrained by slow Na+ transfer kinetics and air sensitivity. Herein, to address these issues, the effects of surface residual alkali and sodium layer spacing on the electrochemical performance and air stability of O3-NaxCu1/9Ni2/9Fe1/3Mn1/3O2 (x = 1.00, 0.95, 0.93, 0.91 and 0.89) were investigated. It is found that reducing the Na content could reduce the surface residual alkali content and lower the Na+ diffusion barrier. However, reducing the Na content also led to an expansion of the sodium layer spacing, making active Na+ ions more prone to spontaneous extraction. A moderate reduction in Na content led to significant suppression of surface residual alkali and a slight expansion in Na layer spacing, as exemplified by the Na0.93CNFM sample, enabling improved air stability, rate performance, and cycling stability. We have uncovered the influence of surface residual alkali and Na layer spacing on the air stability of O3-type layered NaxCu1/9Ni2/9Fe1/3Mn1/3O2. Our findings shed light on the underlying mechanism that affects the air sensitivity of the layered cathode materials for SIBs.

Coordinated Optimization Scheduling Method for Frequency and Voltage in Islanded Microgrids Considering Active Support of Energy Storage

In islanded microgrids with high-proportion renewable energy, the disconnection from the main grid leads to the characteristics of low inertia, weak damping, and high impedance ratio, which exacerbate the safety risks of frequency and voltage. To balance the requirements of system operation economy and frequency–voltage safety, a coordinated optimization scheduling method for frequency and voltage in islanded microgrids considering the active support of battery energy storage (BES) is proposed. First, to prevent the state of charge (SOC) of BES from exceeding the frequency regulation range due to rapid frequency adjustment, a BES frequency regulation strategy with an adaptive virtual droop control coefficient is adopted. The frequency regulation capability of BES is evaluated based on the capacity constraints of grid-connected converters, and a joint frequency and voltage regulation strategy for BES is proposed. Second, an average system frequency model and an alternating current power flow model for islanded microgrids are established. The influence of steady-state voltage fluctuations on active power frequency regulation is analyzed, and dynamic frequency safety constraints and node voltage safety constraints are constructed and incorporated into the optimization scheduling model. An optimization scheduling method for islanded microgrids that balances system operation costs and frequency–voltage safety is proposed. Finally, the IEEE 33-node system in islanded mode is used as a simulation case. Through comparative analysis of different optimization strategies, the effectiveness of the proposed method is verified.

A Systematic Literature Review on Li-Ion BESSs Integrated with Photovoltaic Systems for Power Supply to Auxiliary Services in High-Voltage Power Stations

The integration of lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery energy storage systems (LiBESSs) with photovoltaic (PV) generation offers a promising solution for powering auxiliary services (ASs) in high-voltage power stations. This study conducts a systematic literature review (SLR) to evaluate the feasibility, benefits, and challenges of this integration. The proposed SLR complies with the PRISMA 2020 statement, and it is also registered on the international PROSPERO platform (ID 1073599). The selected methodology includes the following key steps: definition of the research questions; search strategy development; selection criteria of the studies; quality assessment; data extraction and synthesis; and discussion of the results. Through a comprehensive analysis of scientific publications from 2013 to 2024, trends, advancements, and research gaps are identified. The methodology follows a structured review framework, including data collection, selection criteria, and evaluation of technical feasibility. From 803 identified studies, 107 were eligible in accordance with the assessed inclusion criteria. Then, a custom study impact factor (SIF) framework selected 5 out of 107 studies as the most representative and assertive ones on the topics of this SLR. The findings indicate that Li-ion BESSs combined with PV systems enhance reliability, reduce reliance on conventional sources, and improve grid resilience, particularly in remote or constrained environments. The group of reviewed studies discuss optimization models and multi-objective strategies for system sizing and operation, along with practical case studies validating their effectiveness. Despite these advantages, challenges related to cost, regulatory frameworks, and performance variability remain. The study concludes that further experimental validations, pilot-scale implementations, and assessment of long-term economic impacts are necessary to accelerate the adoption of BESS-PV systems in high-voltage power substations. This study was funded by the R&D program of the Brazilian National Electric Energy Agency (ANEEL) via project number PD-07351-0001/2022.

Optimal Sizing and Techno-Economic Evaluation of a Utility-Scale Wind–Solar–Battery Hybrid Plant Considering Weather Uncertainties, as Well as Policy and Economic Incentives, Using Multi-Objective Optimization

This study presents an optimization framework for a utility-scale hybrid power plant (HPP) that integrates wind power plants (WPPs), solar power plants (SPPs), and battery energy storage systems (BESS) using historical and probabilistic weather modeling, regulatory incentives, and multi-objective trade-offs. By employing multi-objective particle swarm optimization (MOPSO), the study simultaneously optimizes three key objectives: economic performance (maximizing net present value, NPV), system reliability (minimizing loss of power supply probability, LPSP), and operational efficiency (reducing curtailment). The optimized HPP (283 MW wind, 20 MW solar, and 500 MWh BESS) yields an NPV of $165.2 million, a levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of $0.065/kWh, an internal rate of return (IRR) of 10.24%, and a 9.24-year payback, demonstrating financial viability. Operational efficiency is maintained with <4% curtailment and 8.26% LPSP. Key findings show that grid imports improve reliability (LPSP drops to 1.89%) but reduce economic returns; higher wind speeds (11.6 m/s) allow 27% smaller designs with 54.6% capacity factors; and tax credits (30%) are crucial for viability at low PPA rates (≤$0.07/kWh). Validation via Multi-Objective Genetic Algorithm (MOGA) confirms robustness. The study improves hybrid power plant design by combining weather predictions, policy changes, and optimizing three goals, providing a flexible renewable energy option for reducing carbon emissions.

Insights into Carbon-Based Aerogels Toward High-Performance Lithium–Sulfur Batteries: A Review of Strategies for Sulfur Incorporation Within Carbon Aerogel Frameworks

Lithium–sulfur batteries (LSBs), possessing excellent theoretical capacities, advanced theoretical energy densities, low cost, and nontoxicity, are one of the most promising energy storage battery systems. However, some issues, including poor conductivity of elemental S, the “shuttle effect” of high-order lithium polysulfides (LiPSs), and sluggish reaction kinetics, hinder the commercialization of LSBs. To solve these problems, various carbon-based aerogels with developed surface morphology, tunable pores, and electrical conductivity have been examined for immobilizing sulfur, mitigating its volume variation and enhancing its electrochemical kinetics. In this paper, an extensive generalization about the effective preparation methods of carbon-based aerogels comprising the combined method of carbonization with the gelation of precursors and drying processes (ambient pressure drying, freeze-drying, and supercritical drying) is proposed. And we summarize various carbon carbon-based aerogels, mainly including graphene aerogels (Gas) and carbon nanofiber (CNF) and carbon nanotube (CNT) aerogels as cathodes, separators, and interlayers in LSBs. In addition, the mechanism of action of carbon-based aerogels in LSBs is described. Finally, we conclude with an outlook section to provide some insights into the application of carbon-based aerogels in electrochemical energy storage devices. Based on the discussion and proposed recommendations, we provide more approaches on nanomaterials in high-performance liquid or state LSBs with high electrochemical performance in the future.

Phase Field Simulation for Dendrite Growth in Energy Storage Batteries

Abstract The phase-field method is an effective numerical simulation approach capable of accurately describing the dynamic process of dendrite growth in energy storage batteries. This paper first introduces the basic phase field theory framework, emphasizing the effects of ion distribution, applied electric field, solid electrolyte interphase, temperature, stress, and anisotropy on dendrite growth by incorporating different field variables and energy terms. Subsequently, the applications of phase-field models in various areas regarding to dendrite growth are presented, such as electrode structure optimization, dead lithium analysis and dendrite simulation in different electrode materials. Furthermore, this paper reviews the research progress achieved by experiments about dendrite to validate the correctness of phase-field simulations. Finally, the future research directions regarding phase-field models in dendrite growth studies are discussed.

Coordinated frequency regulation for thermal power unit and battery energy storage using dynamic proportional control

Coordinated frequency regulation for thermal power unit and battery energy storage using dynamic proportional control

Layered-columnar cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries

The advancement of cathode materials possessing high-rate capability and extended cycle life is crucial for the viability of large-scale energy storage in sodium-ion batteries. A layered-columnar material NaFe[O3PCH(OH)CO2] is designed with 2D grid-like channels for sodium ion migration. Operating on the Fe2+/Fe3+ redox reaction, NaFe[O3PCH(OH)CO2] exhibits a reversible specific capacity of 106.1 mAh g-1 after 50 cycles within the voltage range of 1.5–4.2 V, reaching 93.4% of the theoretical specific capacity. Experimental and theoretical investigations show that NaFe[O3PCH(OH)CO2] exhibits low-strain characteristics during discharge and charge processes. The presence of stable C-P covalent bonds between organic layers and inorganic columns ([FeO6] and [CPO3]) plays a pivotal role in achieving its long cycle life. Even under high current density of 240 mA g–1, it maintains satisfactory capacities, delivering 61.6 mAh g–1 after the 1000th cycles, indicating a capacity retention rate of 92.2% with only 0.0078% loss per cycle. This study indicates that layered-columnar structure design offers a viable strategy for the development of high-performance positive electrode material for sodium-ion batteries.

Advancing in Situ synthesis of Zn3(OH)2V2O7·2H2O/Betalains nanocomposite for simultaneous enhancement of electrochemical performance and green energy storage in high-performance Li-Ion batteries and supercapacitors

Advancing in Situ synthesis of Zn3(OH)2V2O7·2H2O/Betalains nanocomposite for simultaneous enhancement of electrochemical performance and green energy storage in high-performance Li-Ion batteries and supercapacitors

Heteroatom Doping Strategy for Enhanced Sodium-Ion Storage in Na2Fe1.5Mn1.5(PO4)3.

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are promising and cost-effective substitutes for lithium-ion batteries for large-scale energy storage. Hence, exploring novel anode materials is crucial to developing sustainable SIBs. Herein, a nitrogen and sulfur co-doped carbon layer wrapped alluaudite Na2Fe1.5Mn1.5(PO4)3 (NFMP@SNC) with uniform 3D urchin-like morphology is successfully synthesized via a simple hydrothermal technique. For the first time, this study examines their electrochemical properties as an anode for SIBs. The N, S-doped carbon layer forms a conductive network that enhances electron transport, facilitates Na+ diffusion, and prevents particle aggregation and side reactions. As a result, NFMP@SNC displays an irreversible capacity of 774.52 mAhg-1 and a reversible capacity of 253.40 mAhg-1 at 0.05C, retaining 61.2% of its theoretical capacity (414 mAhg-1). Furthermore, it shows an excellent rate capability of 71.76% at 0.1C (25 cycles) and retention of 48.49% at 0.2C (100 cycles). Additionally, density functional theory (DFT) calculations are conducted to evaluate the electronic band structure, density of states, charge density distribution, and Na+ diffusion energy barriers of pristine NFMP, providing fundamental insights into its electrochemical behavior. With a low average voltage of ≈0.7 V, NFMP@SNC emerges as a promising intercalation-type anode material enabled by 3D architecture and N,S co-doping for high-performance SIBs.

Rechargeable cement-based solid-state nickel-iron batteries for energy storage of self-powered buildings

Rechargeable cement-based solid-state nickel-iron batteries for energy storage of self-powered buildings

SR-CKF algorithm-based state-of-charge estimation of lithium-ion batteries for energy storage over a wide temperature range

SR-CKF algorithm-based state-of-charge estimation of lithium-ion batteries for energy storage over a wide temperature range