Batch Composition Research Articles

TS-1 Synthesis via Subcrystal Aggregation: Construction of Highly Active Hydrogen-Bonded Titanium Species for Alkene Epoxidation.

The construction and determination of highly active Ti sites comprise one of the most significant challenges in the rational design and synthesis of Ti-containing porous catalysts. The pathway to efficiently build highly catalytically active titanium species remains to be proposed in spite of deliberate post treatments or ambiguous batch composition adjustments. In this study, we developed a bottom-up strategy to construct a TS-1 catalyst with highly active hydrogen-bonded Ti species via subcrystal aggregation crystallization. The microstructure of the hydrogen-bonded Ti species was verified by vacuum FT-IR and 1H MAS SSNMR spectroscopies. Noteworthy features of the hydrogen-bonded Ti species were also revealed, including a pentahedral coordination state and Brønsted acidity, as identified by the UV-Raman, XPS, XAFS, and FT-IR spectra of adsorbed pyridine. Significantly, the hydrogen-bonded Ti species exhibits extraordinary activity in allyl chloride epoxidation (nearly 70% higher than that of traditional Ti species). This study provides a new approach to building highly active Ti sites, which may provide new insights into the design and synthesis of high-performance titanosilicate catalysts.

Cracking susceptibility of maraging parts manufactured by laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing: study on the powder characteristics and baseplate preheating influence

ABSTRACT Maraging steel 300 processed by laser powder bed fusion (PBF-LB/M) is widely used for manufacturing inserts and moulds with conformal cooling channels. For such applications, high fracture toughness and strength are required to withstand thermal fatigue and any defect like pores, lack of fusion and cracks should be avoided so that the durability of the mould is not reduced. Maraging steel is prone to be cracked due to thermal gradients which arise during PBF-LB/M. Moreover, it was recently observed that slight variations in composition led to the crack’s presence, which implied lower mechanical properties. In this study, two powder batches, from the same powder producer, were employed with the same processing parameters. The effect of small changes in minor elements composition of the powder batch on cracking was studied and the preheating temperature was varied to significantly reduce the crack density. The presence of cracks significantly reduced the ductility of the parts.

Synthesis, physical and optical properties of boro-tellurite glasses co-doped with bismuth oxide

Synthesis of bismuth-boro-tellurite (TBB) glasses with batch composition (80-X) TeO2-20%B2O3-X%Bi2O3 (x = 5, 10, 15, 20 mol%) have been synthesized by using the traditional melting and quench technique. Structures of prepared sample were checked by X-Ray Diffraction. The thermal characteristics of prepared specimens were studied by differential scanning calorimetry. Physical properties that exhibit the effect of Bi2O3 on glass structure include density, oxygen packing density (OPD), Bi3+ concentration (N), inter-nuclear distance Ri and polaron radius Rp. Various optical characteristics including refractive index (n), Urbach energy, absorbance and direct and indirect allowed transition optical energy band gaps were studied.

Nanopore-based quantification of viral vectors and nanoparticles as an analytical tool for gene therapy products.

Gene therapy, gene editing, and cell therapy are the new frontiers of medicine, delivering treatments to diseases that no conventional therapeutic (small molecule drugs) could effectively target. These therapeutic technologies typically leverage viral vector-based carrier particles to deliver the gene therapy cargo to the target cells and tissues. A significant challenge in this field lies in process development and optimization, where the parameters involved in the production of the particles can be standardized and tuned to improve the efficacy or yield of the final therapeutic product. However, analytical tools that track the properties of the particles produced in each iteration and connecting them to biological efficacy are currently lacking. In this work, we demonstrate a proof-of-concept study of our device which leverages multi-channel measurements of solid-state nanopores to obtain properties of protein-decorated fluorescent beads (reference sample) as well as lentiviral vectors (therapeutic sample). The nanopore measurements provide single-particle metrics such as size and relative density, as well as bulk metrics such as particle concentration, average surface charge, and aggregation rates. Existing quantification methods of viral vectors rely on fluorescent reporter genes in infectious titer experiments or antibody-based potency assays, which do not directly inform the developer of the composition of the viral batch. These methods are labor and material intensive, lack sufficient precision, require many assay design iterations for each product, and often do not translate to development of the final therapeutic product (once the reporter genes are replaced with therapeutic cargo). Our nanopore-based quantification device can substitute in for many of these assays during upstream development to enable well-informed, rapid optimization of process parameters on the viral vector, which may ultimately improve the translatability, efficacy, time-to-market, and success of breakthrough gene therapies.

Glass-Ceramic Protective Coatings Based on Metallurgical Slag

Pyroxene glass-ceramic enamels based on combinations of blast furnace slag and some additives were produced and investigated. The batch compositions and technological regimes of enameling were developed to produce high temperature protective coatings for carbon steel (ASTM 1010/1008). The composition of raw materials was selected to match the values of the thermal expansion coefficients of the glass-ceramic coating (~11∙10−6 K−1) and metal substrate (~12∙10−6 K−1) taking into account the temperatures of fluidization (Tf ~ 800°) and crystallization (Tc = 850−1020 °C) of the corresponding glasses. The covered and thermally treated samples of carbon steel were produced using single-layer enameling technology and investigated to specify structure, phase composition and properties of the coating and coating-steel interface. The obtained coatings were characterized with excellent adhesion to the steel (impact energy ~3 J) and protective properties. The closed porous structure of the coatings promoted low thermal conductivity (~1 W/(m·K)) and high (up to 1000 °C) thermal resistance, whereas the pyroxene-like crystalline phases supported high wear and chemical resistance as well as micro-hardness (~480 MPa) and thermal shock resistance (>30 cycles of 23–700 °C). The obtained cheap coatings and effective protective coatings could be used at the temperatures up to 1100 °C in the corrosive atmosphere and under the action of abrasive particles.

Studies on optical and electronic characteristics of ternary zinc-tellurite glasses with varying Zn doping concentration

• Ternary Zn-Te base glasses with different mole percent of ZnO concentration were prepared by melt and quench method. • Changes in the glass composition were found to alter the characteristics of ternary Zn-Te base glasses. • With increasing ZnO concentration from 5% to 20% density increases from 4.918 to 5.196 gm/cc. • With the addition of Zinc oxide to ternary Zn-Te glass matrix, the refractive index increases. • High R.I. and good optical allowance recommend the candidature of synthesized ternary glasses for various photonic devices. Ternary zinc-tellurite glasses of batch composition x%-(ZnO)-(90-x)%(TeO 2 )-10 %Na 2 O with × = 5, 10, 15 and 20 %, were synthesized by customary melting and quenching method. The morphological, physical, and optical characteristics of the material were investigated. Differential scanning calorimetry was done for glass transition temperature, whereas X-ray diffraction and, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) -Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis (EDAX or EDS), was done for information of surface morphology and batch composition. Structural information is gathered by Raman spectra. Physical parameters as density, oxygen packing density (OPD), Zn 2+ concentration, poleron radius and inter atomic distance have been calculated. Optical properties such as coefficient of absorption, optical energy band gap, refractive index and Urbach’s energy were calculated. The effect of ZnO concentration on physical and optical parameter has been studied.

Вплив сировинних та технологічних факторів на сорбційні властивості доменного коксу.

The influence of raw material factors (component composition of batches, petrographic characteristics, indicators of proximate and plastometric analyses, granulometric composition) and technological factors (coking period, process temperature) on the sorption properties of the carbonized product (coke) has been studied. Based on the research results, it is shown that such characteristics of coke as low humidity and ash, minimal yield of volatile matters, developed pore system and low cost make its use as a sorbent promising and economically justified. Standardized methods for studying the technological properties of coal and coal blends (particle size distribution, technical analysis, petrographic analysis), as well as special methods for determining the sorption capacity (for alkali and acid) and adsorption activity (for iodine and methyl blue) were used in the study. The qualitative characteristics of coke were studied using physical, mechanical and thermochemical methods to investigate standardized indicators: particle size distribution, fractility (M25), abrasion (M10), reactivity (CRI), and post-reaction strength (CSR). Mathematical statistics methods were used to analyze the influence of raw material factors on the characteristics of coke sorbent. The conducted research made it possible to establish the dependence of the sorption characteristics of coke on the structural features and nature of coal raw materials (yield of volatile matters, vitrinite content) and the structure and degree of readiness of coke (yield of volatile matters coke). The obtained dependences for predicting the alkali and acid sorption capacity and iodine adsorption activity, taking into account the vitrinite content and the volatile matter yield of the charge, are characterised by high correlation coefficients r (0.912 and 0.927 and 0.937, respectively), so they can be recommended for predicting these indicators. Keywords: carbon adsorbents, coke sorbent, sorption capacity, adsorption activity, activation. Corresponding author: D.V. Miroshnichenko, e-mail: dvmir79@gmail.com

MOF-199-based coatings as SPME fiber for measurement of volatile organic compounds in air samples: Optimization of in situ deposition parameters

In this study MOF-199-based solid-phase microextraction coating was synthesized using an in situ solvothermal method on a stainless steel substrate. The effects of solvent, metal salt, chemical modulator, and batch composition on the physicochemical characteristics of the MOF-199 coating were studied. The thickness of the MOF-199 coating increased by 18% when 15.2 mmol of acetic acid was used as an additive. Using 99.9% butanol as the solvent improved homogeneity (smaller crystallite size) of the MOF coating and decreased coating thickness by 7.5 times compared to those of 75% ethanol. Using Cu(OAc)2·H2O as the metal precursor did not lead to the growth of the MOF-199 layer on stainless steel cores. Whilst the use of Cu(NO3)2·3H2O allowed to obtain 6-, 21-, 34-, 62-, 94- and 105 µm MOF-199 SPME coatings. Responses of 7 volatile organic compounds by 34-µm and 62-µm MOF-199-based fibers were 1.2–8.5 times higher than those of commercial PDMS/DVB. The method developed for the quantification of BTEX in the air was characterized by high linearity (R2 = 0.9909–0.9993), low limits of detection (0.03–0.09 μg/m3), and quantification (0.09–0.31 μg/m3), high repeatability (1.0–6.4%) and reproducibility (4.5–8.0%). The spike recoveries ranged from 73% to 108%.

Effect of ZnO on Structural, Physical and Optical Properties of Heavy Metal Oxides Doped Tellurite Glasses

A conventional technique has been used to prepare Heavy Metal Oxides (HMO) doped ternary tellurite glasses. The batch composition of samples were as (90-y)%TeO2-10%WO3-x%ZnO, (y=5%,10%,15%, and 20%). ZnO alter the optical and physical properties of the glasses are investigated. The thermal characteristics of the produced samples are studied using differential scanning calorimetry, and their structural conformation is determined using XRD. The existence of structural units is shown by Raman spectroscopy. Other parameters of glass samples have been calculated, including density, molar volume, polaron radius, and intermolecular distance. The absorption spectra of samples were measured in the spectrum range of 350nm to 1000nm, and the refractive index, direct and indirect optical energy band gaps, and Urbach’s energy were determined.

Mullite Ceramics Derived from Fly Ash Powder by Using Albumin as an Organic Gelling Agent

Mullite is a combination compound of alumina (Al2O3) and silica (SiO2). During the last two decades, mullite ceramics have become the crucial oxide material for both traditional and advanced applications due to their favorable properties, such as good strength at very high temperatures, low density, good thermal shock resistance, and chemically stable. Mullite is also known for its stoichiometry 3Al2O3.2SiO2, or sometimes it is called 3/2 mullite. In this present investigation, the authors attempt to fabricate mullite-based ceramic through a gel casting process by using an organic binder (egg white) to consolidate powder particles, followed by low-temperature sintering. Fly ash powder, china clay powder, and alumina powder were used as raw materials to make mullite ceramic. Green bodies were fabricated by taking various proportions of fly ash, china clay, and alumina, followed by sintering at 1200C, 1250C, and 1300C for 2 hours. The stability of slurries was studied by measuring zeta potential, and green sample fracture surfaces were analyzed by Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM). Physical properties of sintered samples, such as linear shrinkage, density, porosity, and water absorption, were also calculated. Evidence of mullite formation was characterized by Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM scanning electron microscopy (SEM) techniques. The samples containing 45 wt.% fly ash, 15 wt.% china clay, and 40 wt.% aluminas showed the best physical properties compared to other batch compositions and were well supported by the results obtained from FESEM results.

Hydrothermal synthesis of Al-doped magnetite nanoflakes and the effect of aspect ratio on their magnetic properties

The current study is an effort to use a hydrothermal process to create flake-like iron oxide particles with various aspect ratios. In the initial stage, various morphologies of hematite nanoparticles were produced, which were subsequently thermally reduced into the magnetite phase using C2H2 gas as the reduction atmosphere. Tuning the aluminum cation concentration in the initial hydrothermal batch composition resulted in truncated hexagonal bipyramid (THB) shaped particles and pseudo-hexagonal flakes with varying diameters and thicknesses. The likely mechanisms for morphological evolution were addressed. The studies utilizing FESEM images indicated that particles with aspect ratios ranging from 1.1 to 20.3 were obtained. Because hematite nanoparticles are known to be weakly ferromagnetic, we concentrated on investigating changes in magnetic characteristics caused by aspect ratio alterations in magnetite nanoparticles. The alternating gradient force magnetometery technique was used to measure the magnetic characteristics at room temperature. Maximum magnetizations of 30–99 emu/g were recorded at a maximum field strength of 9 kOe, which was very sensitive to the aspect ratio. The successful hydrothermal synthesis of magnetite flake particles and control of their magnetic properties by aspect ratio changes might be a promising result that could be extended to other physical and chemical application fields.

From Biodeterioration to Creativity: Bioreceptivity of Spruce Pine 87 Glass Batch by Fungi

The bioreceptivity, and the consequent biodeterioration of contemporary glass, used by artists worldwide, was studied. The two main objectives were: first, to verify if fungi with some culture media would produce more damages than the same fungi without a nutritional source, and to verify if the two genera of fungi produce the same damage on the same glass. Colourless glass samples with Spruce Pine 87 Batch (SPB-87) composition were inoculated with two distinct fungal species, Penicillium chrysogenum and Aspergillus niger, separately: (i) half with fungal spores (simulating primary bioreceptivity), and (ii) half with fungi in a small portion of culture media (simulating organic matter that can be deposited on exposed glassworks, i.e., secondary bioreceptivity). The alteration of glass surfaces were analysed by Optical Microscopy, SEM-EDS and µ-Raman. The mycelium of Penicillium chrysogenum generated a higher amount of fingerprints, stains and iridescence, whereas Aspergillus niger produced more biopitting and crystals on the glass surface. However, both species damaged the glass to different degrees in 4 and 6 months after the inoculation, producing physico-chemical damage (e.g., iridescence, biopitting), and chemical alterations (e.g., depletion and deposition of elements and crystals). The primary bioreceptivity experiment of glass samples inoculated with Aspergillus niger results in less damage than in the case of secondary bioreceptivity, being almost similar for Penicillium chrysogenum. The new and in-depth understanding of the bioreceptivity and deterioration of post-modern glass art and cultural heritage provided here is of paramount importance for the scientific, conservation and artistic communities—to protect glass cultural materials, or seen by artists as innovative and inspirational ways of creating glass art in the future.

Using UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectroscopy as a tool for the detection of iron and cobalt in glass: A case-study on HLLA material from the Low Countries

The early modern period is mainly characterised by High Lime-Low Alkali (HLLA) glass, a lime-rich glass made from plant or tree ashes, originating from 14th-century Germany and later used all over Europe. Attempts to link HLLA chemical subgroups to a particular point in time have failed so far. Driven by a request from the archaeological community, our research group has been exploring the feasibility of UV–Vis-NIR absorption spectroscopy as a non-destructive and in-situ applicable analysis technique for more than a decade. The main goal of this research is to provide a better understanding of the subgroups of HLLA glass and their respective dating via non-destructive means. A second topic relates to the role of cobalt as a potential indicator for either the type of applied ashes or for glass recycling.In this paper, we present the UV–Vis-NIR and LA-ICP-MS results of a total of 45 HLLA colourless glass objects or fragments, supplemented with three blue glasses from the 15th to the 17th centuries. First, we observed a correlation between iron and cobalt contents and that these two elements show more elevated concentrations starting from the middle of the 16th century. Different types of sources can be responsible, such as the type of raw materials, the tools employed, and recycling. We hypothesised that both elements were introduced through the wood or plant ashes used as fluxing agent. Then, we noted that the presence of low amounts of cobalt in colourless glass, can be observed through the analysis of the Co2+ absorption bands in the optical spectra down to 18 ppm. Next, we describe an approach to quantify iron and cobalt from the optical spectra and to date HLLA material by means of absorption spectroscopy, a valid, rapid, and non-destructive alternative for laboratory measurements. Finally, we show that the optical parameters (the Ultra-violet Absorption Edge (UVAE), the calculated Fe2+ and total iron contents, and the Co2+ absorption bands characteristics) allow discerning two glass groups: one dating to the end of the 15th-middle of the 16th centuries, and the other to the second half 16th-17th centuries. These results gain valuable information to further resolve the study on recycling, on the influence of the glassmaking tool on the glass batch composition and/or on the selection or treatment of the raw materials in HLLA glass.

Ion-Pairs in Aluminosilicate-Alkali Synthesis Liquids Determine the Aluminum Content and Topology of Crystallizing Zeolites.

Using hydrated silicate ionic liquids, phase selection and framework silicon-to-aluminum ratio during inorganic zeolite synthesis were studied as a function of batch composition. Consisting of homogeneous single phasic liquids, this synthesis concept allows careful control of crystallization parameters and evaluation of yield and sample homogeneity. Ternary phase diagrams were constructed for syntheses at 90 °C for 1 week. The results reveal a cation-dependent continuous relation between batch stoichiometry and framework aluminum content, valid across the phase boundaries of all different zeolites formed in the system. The framework aluminum content directly correlates to the type of alkali cation and gradually changes with batch alkalinity and dilution. This suggests that the observed zeolites form through a solution-mediated mechanism involving the concerted assembly of soluble cation-oligomer ion pairs. Phase selection is a consequence of the stability for a particular framework at the given aluminum content and alkali type.

A novel photo-thermo-refractive glass with chlorine instead of bromine for holographic application

The well-known standard photo-thermo-refractive (PTR) glass has some limitations in holographic applications in the visible region due to light scattering on the large NaF nanocrystals formed during the photo-thermo-induced (PTI) crystallization process. The large size of the NaF nanocrystals can be reduced by forming more nucleation centers (silver nanoparticles). We suppose this can be achieved by introducing more silver into the batch composition of the glass. However, bromine does not permit high silver concentrations due to the spontaneous crystallization and high Mie-scattering. Therefore, we introduce a novel PTR glass by replacing bromine with chlorine. The novel glass enables us to increase the silver concentration and consequently increase the concentration of the formed nanoparticles. The optical properties, differential scanning calorimetry, and X-ray diffraction analyses were performed on the novel glasses. An experimental and theoretical investigation of the PTI crystallization process was carried out by monitoring the evolution of the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) absorption band. It was found that the UV exposure and heat treatment lead to precipitation of the NaF crystalline phase on a chlorine-containing dielectric shell that surrounds the silver nanoparticle. It was also found that using chlorine instead of bromine leads to a blue shift in the SPR absorption peak location.Volume Bragg gratings were successfully recorded in the novel PTR glasses. The maximum value of the refractive index modulation amplitude obtained for the novel glass is comparable with that for the standard PTR glass.

Reduction of batches of large quantities of amber

Purpose. To carry out a comprehensive analysis of the problems of forensic gemological examination arising from the study of industrial and semi-industrial batches of amber in raw materials weighing more than 100 kg for further study in the laboratory, to formulate appropriate recommendations. Method. The work uses general scientific research methods - empirical and theoretical (analysis, generalization, comparison, explanation). Part of the work is based on the results of previous studies. Results. It is shown that the proposed method for reducing large lots of amber makes it possible to create a representative (analytical) sample that maximally corresponds to the composition of the entire amber batch and repeats all its properties. The proposed guidelines use the classical approach to sample quartering, adapted to the legal environment in which the forensic scientist works. The аuthenticity and reliability of the methodology is confirmed by the convergence of the obtained analytical sample with the results of the study of the original batch of amber. The correlation coefficient of the Pearson calculation ensures the objectivity of the technique. The proposed method for reducing and obtaining representative samples is focused on obtaining objective results and, which is very important, ensures the invulnerability of an expert in his professional activities when conducting a gemological examination. Scientific novelty. The algorithm for reducing large lots of amber is based on a hierarchical model, including weighing and reconciling data with accompanying documents, determining the number of fractions in the ratio in the original samples, grouping samples according to the convergence of fractions, quartering as a process of forming a representative sample, determining the number of fractions, assessing the reliability of the results obtained . The proposed methodology in the future will expand and improve the scientific and methodological base of the Expert Services of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine and other organizations of a related profile. Practical significance. The use of the considered method of forming a representative sample of amber from large lots weighing more than 100 kg will allow specialists to select the necessary set of methods and actions for this type of raw material and, thereby, ensure the maximum compliance of the analytical sample with the composition of the entire amber batch, fully repeating its qualitative properties.

A Facile Method to Synthesize b-Oriented Silicalite-1 Thin Film.

Silicalite-1 thin film was prepared with the following batch composition—3TPAOH:25TEOS:1450H2O:100EtOH—and synthesized using the hydrothermal technique. Silicalite-1 colloidal crystals were successfully coated on the surface of the silica substrate by the dip-coating method. The investigation of silicalite-1 thin film with organic structure-directing agents (SDA), using a seeding technique with various colloidal seed concentrations, number of dip-coating steps, and crystallization time, were systematically discussed and obtained interesting results. Silicalite-1 powder and Silicalite-1 membrane, the patterns of which showed a unique characteristic crystallography of MFI topology, were characterized by XRD, which indicated the preferred orientation along the b-axis perpendicular to the substrate surface. The morphology and crystal size aspect of Silicalite-1 were also examined by a scanning electron microscope (SEM).

Synthesis of the Bi2GeO5 Ferroelectric Crystalline Phase from a Nonstoichiometric Batch

In the present research, an individual Bi2GeO5 crystalline phase is successfully synthesized on air from Bi2O3‐Bi‐GeO2 batch in which some part of bismuth oxide is replaced by metallic bismuth to create an oxygen deficiency. The crystallization process is carried out by three methods: heterophase synthesis, melt cooling, and glass crystallization. The structure of the formed crystalline phases as well as the influence of the bismuth metal quantity and synthesis temperature on crystallization results have been investigated by X‐ray diffraction (XRD). It is found that both the melt temperature rising, and an increase of metallic bismuth amount led to the formation of an individual Bi2GeO5 phase. The optimal initial batch compositions and crystallization conditions to produce an individual Bi2GeO5 or Bi4Ge3O12 phase have also been found.

Valorization of granite waste powder as a secondary flux material for sustainable production of ceramic tiles

Granite waste is one of the most abundant industrial by-products released from the construction industries. Irrespective of its unique chemical properties granite waste is still discarded in enormous amount without further use that has potential adverse environmental impacts. For that reason, the study presents a practical approach to recover and exploit granite waste as a secondary flux for production of ceramic tiles. The granite waste was crushed and ground to obtain a fine powder. Different batch compositions containing a varied proportion of granite powder were prepared and fired at different sintering temperatures: 1100, 1150 and 1200 °C. The raw materials and ceramic bodies were characterized for their chemical compositions, microstructural, mineralogical and physical–mechanical properties. The results showed that, a change in batch compositions and sintering temperature enhanced the quality of ceramic tiles in terms of mechanical strength and physical properties. The final experimental deduction showed that, the prospect to produce ceramic tiles containing up to 40 % of granite powder, at the firing temperature of 1200 °C with enhanced engineering properties that meet the minimum standards specified by ISO-13006 is feasible.

Development of composite filters from biochars for wastewater treatment

ABSTRACT The aim of this research is to develop a bio-nanocomposite filter from locally sourced agro-wastes to treat waste and effluent water. The filters were formulated from coconut and peanut shell biochars, with kaolin as the binding agent and rice husk as the pore-creating agent within nanometric size range using planetary balling milling. The batch composition of the filters was carried out in 10 groups and labelled F1 to F10. The parameters for comparison include linear shrinkage, apparent porosity, water absorption, hardness test, bulk density, and modulus of rupture. The results indicate that the filter F7 showed more resistance to indention with a hardness value of 29.4 than the control with a hardness value of 26.6 and also the flow rate in F7 was noted to be 23.07 ml/h, whereas F9 recorded the least flow rate of 1.03 ml/h. It was also observed that filter F8 had a higher bulk density value of 2.587 g cm-3 due to its high degree of compaction, while the control had a lesser bulk density value of 1.9990 g cm-3. However, the control proved to have a higher apparent porosity of 50%, which was slightly higher than filter F10 with 49.46% apparent porosity.