From invisible to quantifiable: unmasking non-extractable HT2/T2 glycosides.

Reduction of nitrogen fertilizer and simultaneously application of bio-organic fertilizer is regarded as an essential approach for realizing sustainable agricultural development. Substituting partial chemical N with bio-organic fertilizer is an environmentally friendly; reduce the risk of environmental pollution due to N losses. However, the appropriate rate of bio-organic fertilizer of highland barley in China is unknown. To clarify the effect of reducing chemical fertilizer and adding bio-organic fertilizer on the grain filling characteristics and yield of highland barley after anthesis under different deficit irrigation amounts in Hexi irrigation area. Under the field test environment for two consecutive years, the differences in grain dry weight after anthesis, grain filling rate, fertilizer partial productivity and yield of highland barley were determined by irrigating once (W1) and twice (W2) during the whole growth period under the no fertilizer T1, N, P, K recommended fertilization T2, T3, T4 and T5 (the total amount of N, P, K recommended fertilizer was reduced by 15%, 30%, and 45%, and bio-organic fertilizer was increased by 30%, 60% and 90%, respectively. Grain filling under different fertilization treatments the filling duration of W2 was extended by 3–8 days compared with W1, and the grain dry weight was higher 25 days after anthesis. The maximum and average filling rates of T3 and T4 were large, the filling duration was short, and the filling rate in each period was significantly positively correlated with the thousand-grain weight. Under the recommended fertilization level T2, there is a large improvement in the partial productivity of highland barley. When the amount of chemical fertilizer was reduced by 45% and organic fertilizer was applied, the partial productivity of chemical fertilizer increased significantly. The average yield of each fertilization treatment with W2 increased by 7.48% in (2019) and 7.06% in (2020) compared with W1. Under the same irrigation, the yield of T4 was always significantly increased compared with other fertilization treatments. The results show that on the basis of the current recommended fertilization level (T2), reducing chemical fertilizer by 15% to 30%, and applying bio-organic fertilizer by 30% to 60%, the T3 and T4, can significantly increase the grain filling rate of highland barley, shorten the filling duration, and increase yield. It is also the optimized water and fertilizer management mode for highland barley cultivation regions. This study serves as an important reference for the optimal management of N fertilizer with irrigation regimes and the promotion of sustainable agricultural development of highland barley cultivation.

Barley yellow mosaic disease (BYMD), a soilborne viral disease, severely compromises winter barley productivity. This disease is caused by barley yellow mosaic virus (BaYMV) and the barley mild mosaic virus (BaMMV), occurring in either single or mixed infections. To elucidate pathogenesis, 10 barley varieties with differential resistance were systematically analyzed. Virus-specific RT-qPCR revealed distinct accumulation patterns of BaYMV and BaMMV in infected tissues. Crucially, transmission requires temperatures persistently below 10°C for 40 to 54 days, facilitating viral entry into roots followed by rapid systemic movement to leaves. Varieties infected with BaYMV, BaMMV, or both showed variations in relative expression levels of BaYMV/BaMMV even among those infected with the same virus. BYMD resulted in a significant reduction in plant height, internode length, spike number, and grain weight per plant in susceptible barley varieties. Notably, infection with BaYMV alone had a more pronounced impact on agronomic traits compared with infection with BaMMV alone. The agronomic traits exhibited similar reductions across the selected varieties, irrespective of whether they were coinfected with BaYMV and BaMMV or infected solely with BaYMV. Virus detection by ELISA correlated with relative viral expression levels, yielding R2 values of 0.7745 (BaYMV) and 0.6689 (BaMMV). Similarly, disease severity values quantified by standardized area under disease progress stairs (sAUDPS) correlated with relative viral expression levels (R2 = 0.7264 for BaYMV and R2 = 0.4402 for BaMMV). Importantly, higher sAUDPS values were associated with greater deterioration in agronomic traits. Genetic analysis confirmed eIF4E as a key resistance source against BYMD and identified QRym.ZN1-7H as an additional major resistance locus. This study holds substantial implications for barley breeding programs aimed at enhancing disease resistance as it facilitates yield prediction under disease pressure and helps the development of early preventive strategies.

Soil salinity limits barley productivity, worsened by domestication bottlenecks that reduced stress-adaptive diversity. We employed a multi-origin introgression strategy using 21 wild Hordeum spontaneum accessions from diverse Fertile Crescent ecotypes to restore ancestral resilience. These foreground segments were embedded in a single cultivated background, yielding a nested backcross population (NBP) and 63 advanced recombinant lines. Parents and lines were evaluated under saline and non-saline field conditions for Na+/K+ ratio, tissue hydration, osmotic adjustment, antioxidant metabolism, and productivity. Introgression generated superior phenotypes that outperformed both parents. High-performing genotypes exhibited a coordinated tolerance strategy involving moderate Na+ uptake with effective tissue tolerance (likely via enhanced vacuolar sequestration), balanced osmotic adjustment to maintain hydration with minimal metabolic cost, and efficient antioxidant responses that avoided defense-yield penalties seen in wild parents. These integrated mechanisms arose from recombining adaptive alleles from multiple wild origins, with Iranian germplasm contributing strongly. A composite selection index based on these physiological traits effectively distinguished tolerant genotypes and correlated with yield stability. Our findings demonstrate that salt tolerance in barley results from balanced coordination of physiological processes rather than maximal defensive activation. Multi-origin wild introgression offers a powerful approach to restore ancestral resilience while preserving agronomic performance.

Understanding the molecular basis of plant-pathogen interactions is critical for advancing crop protection strategies. Powdery mildew, caused by the obligate fungal pathogen Blumeria hordei (Bh), is a threat to barley production worldwide. We exploited time-course ATAC-Seq of barley and derived immune mutants infected with Bh to infer chromatin accessibility influenced by the genetic interactions of mildew locus a6 (Mla6), encoding a nucleotide binding leucine-rich repeat (NLR) immune receptor, and Blufensin1 (Bln1), a basal defense regulator. Sampling at 0, 16, 20, and 32 hours after inoculation captured key pathogen developmental stages representing fungal penetration and haustorial development, respectively. Validation of the dataset was accomplished by calculating general ATAC-Seq peak metrics and comparison with paired RNA-Seq data. ATAC-Seq and RNA-Seq results were correlated, highlighting in particular chromatin-mediated epistatic interactions, demonstrating that the dataset could provide insight into regulatory chromatin architecture. These results offer a valuable dataset for dissecting transcriptional networks involved in barley immune responses.

Genome-wide association mapping reveals pleiotropic loci coupling antioxidant defense with redox homeostasis in barley under combined drought and salinity.

As climate warming exacerbates heat stress, promoting irrigation as a climate adaptation strategy can mitigate adverse impacts on agricultural productivity. Here we use global crop and irrigation datasets in conjunction with climate models to show that sustaining wheat, maize, rice and barley production under 1.5 °C and 3 °C warming scenarios-aligned with current climate targets and business-as-usual projections-requires 13% (25 Mha) and 47% (94 Mha) global irrigation expansion, respectively. Notably, only 60% of these croplands can support irrigation without generating water scarcity and depleting local freshwater resources. These findings underscore the urgency of limiting global warming within 1.5 °C and reveal unequal adaptation needs worldwide between warming scenarios. Our work identifies at high resolution areas where and to what extent irrigation can promote climate-resilient agriculture.

Silicon affects alpine cropland carbon cycling by enhancing the biomass carbon accumulation and phytolith production in highland barley

Genomic hotspots integrating antioxidant priming and hormone-ROS signaling shape barley resilience to Cold-Drought stress.

Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) plays a crucial role in global agriculture and food security, being the fourth most important cereal worldwide. Despite its significance, barley production faces threats, particularly from rust diseases, which can cause substantial yield losses, reaching 50-70% in susceptible varieties during epidemics. Additionally, changing climate patterns, including temperature fluctuations and unseasonal rainfall, contribute to the evolution of more virulent rust pathotypes, negatively impacting barley production. In response to these challenges, the development and deployment of rust-resistant barley cultivars have become imperative. The quest for rust resistance in barley has been a dynamic research area, initially relying on conventional breeding methods focused on phenotypic performance. Over time, various breeding methods such as pedigree breeding, backcrossing, single seed descent, recurrent selection, and doubled haploidy have been employed. However, the advent of molecular technologies has revolutionized the field, providing new avenues for discovering rust-resistant genes and developing improved barley varieties. Techniques like marker-assisted selection, quantitative trait loci (QTL) identification, cloning, etc. opened new avenues for discovering rust-resistant genes and developing improved barley varieties. These molecular approaches provide more precise and efficient means for identifying and introducing desirable traits. This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of these advanced breeding strategies, offering insights that can contribute for effective management of barley leaf rust management and ensure the sustained success of barley production in the face of evolving challenges.

Barley is among the widely distributed and commercially necessary cereals in the world. However, diseases triggered by different kinds of plant pathogens pose a serious challenge to barley production. Some of these diseases are the rusts that are caused by various fungi belonging to the Puccinia species. The main characteristic of the rust disease in barley is its wide distribution and the fact that it leads to crop losses. Early detection of the rust disease is important for its management and containment. The presented article examines the possibilities of initial diagnosis of rust disease in barley plants based on visual and morphological indicators. The morphological characteristics of the pathogen, the color, shape, and location of the blotches, and the symptoms observed on the leaf surface of barley samples infected with rust disease were analysed during the study. The findings suggest that visual and morphological indicators can be employed as an effective and practical method for the early detection of rust disease in initial diagnostics. This method enables the implementation of operational decisions in the field, thereby reducing crop losses. Keywords: barley, rust disease, uredospores, initial diagnostics

Salinity stress severely limits barley production by disrupting physiological and biochemical processes critical for growth and yield. Although numerous studies have examined individual physiological or antioxidant responses to salinity, an integrated multivariate understanding of how these mechanisms collectively contribute to yield stability at the flowering stage remains limited. This study aimed to elucidate the integrated antioxidant and physiological mechanisms underlying salinity tolerance in barley genotypes during flowering. Barley plants were subjected to controlled salinity treatments, and a comprehensive set of phenolic compounds, antioxidant capacity indices, physiological traits, and yield components were measured. Multivariate analyses, including redundancy analysis (RDA) and partial least squares regression (PLSR), identified key traits contributing to yield stability under salinity. Multivariate analyses revealed also genotype-specific physiological strategies underlying contrasting salinity tolerance levels. Antioxidant defenses, such as total phenolics, DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities, and α-tocopherol, along with osmotic regulators like proline and soluble sugars, were closely associated with improved water status and reduced oxidative damage. These coordinated responses correlated strongly with yield components, including thousand-grain weight and main spike seed number. Notably, this study provides new insights into the predictive relevance of selected biochemical and physiological markers for yield performance under salt stress using PLSR at the flowering stage. PLSR further demonstrated the high predictive power of a limited subset of biochemical and physiological markers for yield traits under salt stress. Collectively, these findings reveal that the interplay between antioxidant machinery and osmotic adjustment at flowering is critical for barley resilience to salinity, providing valuable physiological markers to inform breeding strategies aimed at improving salt tolerance.

A field experiment was carried out during the rabi seasons of 2023–24 and 2024–25 at the research farm, Mandawa, Jhunjhunu district, Rajasthan, to study the effect of irrigation levels and hydrogel application under different fertiliser doses on the nutrient uptake and protein content of barley (cv. RD-2035). The experiment was conducted in a split-plot design (SPD) with combinations of 9 treatments and 3 replications. The main plot consisted of 3 irrigation levels (1, 2 and 3 irrigations), while the subplots included 6 hydrogel nutrient treatments (100, 70 and 50 % nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium (NPK) with and without hydrogel at 2.5 kg ha-1). Hydrogel was applied in seed rows at sowing to enhance soil moisture retention. Significant variations were observed in nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and protein content and their uptake in barley as influenced by irrigation levels and hydrogel-based fertiliser management. The application of 3 irrigations (I3) resulted in the highest nutrient content and uptake in both grain and straw, while one irrigation treatment recorded the lowest values. Among moisture conservation practices, hydrogel at 2.5 kg ha-1 combined with 100 % NPK consistently produced the maximum NPK content and uptake, along with superior protein content during both years. These results demonstrate that integrated use of hydrogel and balanced fertilisation under optimal irrigation markedly enhances nutrient availability, uptake efficiency and overall crop quality, suggesting its potential as a sustainable moisture-conservation and nutrient-management strategy for improving barley productivity under variable climatic conditions.

Salinity stress severely limits barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) growth and productivity. This study examined the effects of chitosan (Cs), selenium (Se), and chitosan-selenium nanoparticles (Cs-Se NPs) on salt tolerance of two barley cultivars, Mv Initium and Tectus, exposed to 0, 100, and 200 mM NaCl. Salinity reduced plant height, biomass, and chlorophyll content. Foliar application of Cs and especially Cs-Se NPs significantly improved these traits. Cs-Se NPs enhanced proline (PRO) accumulation and activities of ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and catalase (CAT) under salt stress in both cultivars, which supports improved ROS scavenging capacity. The significant upregulation of antioxidant enzyme genes (HvAPX, HvSOD, HvCAT) following Cs-Se NPs treatment under salinity strongly indicates enhanced reactive oxygen species (ROS) detoxification. Key ion homeostasis genes (HvSOS1, HvSOS3, HvNHX1 and HvHKT2) were also upregulated, supporting improved salt stress tolerance. Strong correlations were found between antioxidant activity, chlorophyll content, and growth. These findings suggest that Cs-Se NPs effectively boost barley’s physiological and molecular defenses against salinity.

ABSTRACT Fusarium head blight (FHB), primarily caused by Fusarium graminearum , poses a major threat to wheat and barley production. Although Fusarium poae is increasingly reported in cereal‐growing regions worldwide, its pathogenic potential in US wheat and barley remains underexplored. We compared the pathogenicity and aggressiveness of four F. poae isolates (GA18W 2.1.6, GA18W 5.2.4, GA18W 6.1.4 and GA19W 13.2.1II) and one reference F. graminearum isolate (GA18W 3.1.4) across seven cultivars (i.e., three soft red winter wheat, two durum wheat and two barley) classified as moderately resistant or susceptible. Greenhouse evaluations were conducted in 2021, 2022 and 2024 using single floret inoculation (SFI) and direct spray (DS). Disease severity (SEV), Fusarium ‐damaged kernels (FDK) and thousand‐kernel weight (TKW) were assessed. Main effects of the isolate, cultivar and inoculation method were significant for SEV, FDK and TKW ( p < 0.0001). As no consistent isolate‐level differences were detected among the four F. poae isolates, data were pooled for species‐level analysis. Across cultivars, inoculation methods and years, F. graminearum GA18W 3.1.4 produced higher SEV (47%–63%) and FDK (54%–76%) and reduced TKW (to 18 g) relative to pooled F. poae (SEV 14%–36%; FDK 32%–56%; TKW up to 24 g), with the greatest impacts in durum wheat. These results demonstrate that F. poae can contribute to FHB in US small‐grain cereals and support consideration of this species in resistance screening programmes.

Climate change is intensifying the frequency and severity of abiotic stresses that threaten global food security by reducing crop productivity. Among these, saline stress poses a serious threat to barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) production. These conditions are increasingly prevalent in arid and semiarid regions, as well as in regions with limited access to freshwater resources, making the identification of salt tolerance genes essential for breeding resilient varieties. In this study, we evaluated 400 genotypes from the barley nested association mapping population HEB‐25 under control conditions and 40% seawater irrigation to simulate moderate‐to‐high salinity stress. A genome‐wide association study (GWAS) was conducted to identify alleles from wild barley [H. vulgare L. subsp. spontaneum (C. Koch) Thell.] associated with enhanced salt tolerance. Phenotypic evaluation included germination percentage (Ger%), shoot length (SL), root length (RL), root–shoot length ratio, seedling fresh weight, seedling dry weight, and salt tolerance index of the different traits. The HEB‐25 families exhibited significant variation in seedling responses to seawater‐induced salinity, with contrasting effects on SL, RL, and dry weight. Compared to the elite parental Barke, several genotypes demonstrated high tolerance under seawater stress, maintaining stable Ger% and exhibiting the highest tolerance indices. Moreover, GWAS results identified 60 highly significant single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with seedling growth parameters under both conditions. These findings underscore the value of the HEB‐400 panel as a genetic resource for dissecting salinity tolerance mechanisms, identifying stress‐adaptive alleles lost during domestication and a source of pre‐breeding material for developing genotypes with enhanced salinity tolerance.

High-resolution yield forecasting is essential for advancing precision agriculture and improving the sustainability of wheat and barley production. While most previous studies focus on field-scale predictions, pixel-level approaches are needed to capture intra-field variability and support site-specific management. This paper evaluates the performance of machine learning models for 10 m resolution yield prediction using multi-temporal Sentinel-2 surface reflectance data across seven major cereal-producing regions in Spain. Yield monitor data from winter wheat and barley fields collected over five growing seasons (2020–2024) were combined with spectral bands and vegetation indices. Random Forest (RF) and XGBoost (XGB) models were trained at five phenological stages expressed as days before harvest (DBH) and validated using both internal (2020–2023) and independent external (2024) datasets. Model accuracy increased as harvest approached. In external validation, RF achieved the best performance for wheat (R2 = 0.77; RMSE ≈ 697 kg · ha−1), while XGB performed best for barley (R2 = 0.86; RMSE ≈ 744 kg · ha−1). Visible, red-edge, and SWIR bands were the most informative predictors, especially during grain filling and senescence. Results demonstrate the potential of multi-temporal Sentinel-2 data and machine learning for accurate, transferable, pixel-level yield forecasting in Mediterranean cereal systems.

Sustainable improvement of barley productivity through organic Fertilization under saline irrigation in newly reclaimed soils

A field experiment was conducted during the Rabi season of 2024-25 at Nanaji Deshmukh Parisar Agriculture Farm, Chitrakoot, Satna (M.P.) to evaluate the effect of integrated nitrogen management using conventional urea and nano urea on barley (var. 'Devlaxmi'). The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Block Design with nine treatments and three replications, combining three levels of conventional nitrogen (50 %, 75 %, and 100 % of the recommended 80 kg N ha⁻¹) with one, two, or three foliar sprays of nano urea (2 % conc.) at critical growth stages. The results demonstrated that treatment T₃ [100 % N + 3 nano urea sprays (Tillering + Jointing + Booting)] produced significantly superior growth (plant height: 85.20 cm, tillers: 7.2 at 90 DAS) and yield attributes (spikes: 6.9 plot⁻¹, grains spike⁻¹: 212.96, test weight: 44.26 g), culminating in the highest grain yield (50.17 q ha⁻¹). This treatment also registered the maximum net return (₹ 49,515 ha⁻¹) and benefit-cost ratio (2.14). The application of 75 % N with three nano urea sprays (T₆) resulted in a yield (47.31 q ha⁻¹) that was competitive, suggesting a potential for partial substitution of conventional urea. It is concluded that the foliar application of nano urea, particularly in three splits alongside the full recommended dose of conventional N, is a highly effective and economically viable strategy for enhancing barley productivity in the sandy loam soils of the Chitrakoot region.

Summary This study investigated how β-glucanase (BGS) alters the dough and powder properties of two highland barley varieties, Kunlun-14 and Zangqing-18, to optimize high-fibre barley products via enzymatic modification. Peak viscosity decreased owing to reduced β-glucan barrier effects and weaker gluten networks. Breakdown value initially decreased before increasing. Final viscosity and retrogradation decreased as amylose recrystallization was inhibited. Zangqing-18 had a lower pasting temperature but higher shear and retrogradation resistance. β-Glucan content decreased with BGS level, while starch, amylose, and protein contents varied nonlinearly. β-glucan inversely correlated with amylose and positively with protein. Particle size remained stable, while molecular chains shortened. BGS reduced water absorption, development time, and stability, weakening gluten strength. Zangqing-18 demonstrated increased sensitivity, displaying enhanced starch stability and reduced retrogradation, whereas Kunlun-14 showed greater increases in tensile properties. BGS enhances gluten hydration, reduces pore size, and strengthens the gluten–starch network, demonstrating value in high-fibre barley food development.