Abstract Heavy-metal contamination remains a critical environmental issue due to the persistence and toxicity of metals such as Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Mn. Agricultural waste–derived biosorbents have emerged as cost-effective and sustainable alternatives to conventional treatment methods, with clear performance differences across materials. Rice husk typically achieves 75–90% removal with adsorption capacities of 60–150 mg g⁻¹ and retains around 70–80% efficiency after 4–5 regeneration cycles, while banana peel commonly shows 80–95% removal with higher capacities of 80–180 mg g⁻¹ and maintains 75–85% efficiency across 3–4 cycles. Sugarcane bagasse offers 70–88% removal with capacities of 50–140 mg g⁻¹ and remains effective for up to four cycles, particularly when chemically modified. Chemical modification often enhances biosorption efficiency, with many agro-waste materials showing 1.5–3-fold improvements in adsorption capacity compared with their raw forms. This review integrates these comparative trends by analysing adsorption performance, the influence of chemical and physical modification, kinetic and isotherm behaviour, and regeneration efficiency to provide a clear picture of biosorption potential across agro-waste materials. By highlighting biosorbents that combine efficiency, stability, affordability, and reusability, the review supports the identification of candidates suitable for practical heavy-metal remediation. Further studies are required to evaluate biosorbents using real wastewater, optimise biomass characteristics and operating conditions, and improve regeneration and safe handling of spent materials so that biosorption can progress toward reliable large-scale application. Graphical abstract

Dry non-thermal plasma pre-treatment for biomass valorization: A sustainable approach for spent coffee grounds and banana peels

Machine learning optimization of pullulan production from banana peel extract by Aureobasidium pullulans

Experimental and DFT-based optimization of nitrilotriacetic acid-modified banana peel biochar for efficient multi-metal removal and reusability

Fortified tofu red banana peel as a nutritional modulator: Computational and molecular insights into food-drug interactions and genetic targets in autism spectrum disorder.

Banana peel, an agricultural waste, contains valuable compounds suitable for use as an adsorbent to remove hazardous dyes and heavy metals from the environment. Activated carbon was prepared from banana peel using HCl as an activating agent. Chitosan was synthesized from shrimp shells through deproteinization, demineralization, and deacetylation, followed by characterization using FTIR. Nanochitosan was produced via ionic gelation and characterized using Particle Size Analyzer (PSA). The resulting nanochitosan was successfully coated onto activated carbon. FTIR analysis showed shifts in absorption intensity in both carbon and activated carbon, indicating successful activation and functional modification. The presence of chitosan was confirmed by the identification of N–H functional groups at 3248 cm⁻¹. PSA results showed that the synthesized nanochitosan had a particle size of approximately 86.14 nm. These findings demonstrate the successful synthesis of activated carbon coated with nanochitosan, with potential applications in environmental remediation through improved adsorption performance.

ABSTRACT This research has prepared an eco-friendly alternative magnetic adsorbent, which removed lead (Pb+2) and cadmium (Cd+2) ions from aqueous solutions via the co-precipitation. The banana peels were impregnated with magnetic iron oxide (Fe3O4) nanoparticles before using them as an adsorbent to increase their efficiency for adsorption as well as for magnetic separation. A comparison between Fourier Transforms Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis revealed a diminished peak corresponding to carbonyl (C=O) at 1740 cm−1 and a new peak appearing at 570 cm−1 which confirms the presence of the Fe-O bond thus supporting the successful immobilisation of the nanoparticle. The X-ray diffraction pattern showed the crystalline phase of Fe3O4, while scanning electron microscopy illustrated the fairly distributed nanoparticles on the peel surface. Both pH variations and initial concentration of ions along with contact time were considered. The optimum conditions were found when the pH was 5.0, a contact time of 90 minutes was enriched with 0.1 grams of adsorbent, using 50 mL of solution having an initial concentration of 50 mg/L, and showed maximum removal efficiencies of 98.6% Pb+2 and 94.3% Cd+2. Kinetic modelling data suggested that the process followed pseudo-second-order kinetics (R2 > 0.995). The composite showed a greater advantage over the raw banana peel and Fe3O4 alone with regard to magnetic separation ability and reuse, up to five cycles with above 85% efficiency, with negative ΔG° values (−5.82 to −7.75 kJ/mol) and positive ΔH° (106.45 kJ/mol) and ΔS° (25.91 J/mol·K), so the adsorption process was spontaneous and endothermic.

The waste from banana peels has bioactive chemicals that could be exploited as natural biomaterials for wound dressings. The amount of swelling in a biofilm is one of the most crucial things that impacts how effectively it works for wound care. This is because it changes how much water it can hold and how solid its structure is. The purpose of this study is to determine the impact of immersion media on the swelling of banana peel extract-based biofilms. We mixed banana peel extract with gelatin at 0.1, 0.3, and 0.5 mL to form biofilms. We tested for swelling in distilled water and a 0.9% NaCl solution for 10 to 30 minutes. We calculated out how much the swelling changed by comparing the weights before and after immersion. After that, we looked at the data by finding the average swelling numbers. The findings indicated that biofilms immersed in NaCl solution exhibited greater swelling than those immersed in pure water. This means that ionic interactions affect how polymer networks grow. The biofilm with 0.3 mL of extract swelled the most, although greater concentrations of extract made the swelling more controllable. These findings indicate that the concentration of the extract and the nature of the immersion medium significantly influence the swelling behavior of banana peel extract-based biofilms. This work provides scientists with insights into enhancing natural biofilm compositions for use as stable and absorbent, eco-friendly wound dressings.

The construction industry is a major contributor to global carbon emissions, largely due to the use of conventional materials with high thermal conductivity. This highlights the need for environmentally sustainable insulation materials aligned with circular economy principles. As the world’s fourth-largest banana producer, Indonesia generates vast amounts of banana peel waste that can be repurposed as an eco-friendly thermal insulation material.This study evaluates the thermal performance of banana peel-based biocomposite (BP80-PS20) as an insulation material for tropical buildings. The research employed a systematic literature review and numerical simulations using DesignBuilder software on a simplified model of a tropical house. Key parameters analyzed include thermal conductivity, U-value, and R-value, benchmarked against Indonesian (SNI 6389:2011) and international (ASHRAE 90.1-2019) standards. Simulation results indicate that BP80–PS20 significantly improves thermal resistance, reducing wall U-values from 2.97 to 0.68 W/m²K and partition U-values from 1.64 to 0.30 W/m²K, corresponding to an increase of over 300% in R-value. The insulated building maintained indoor temperatures between 24.5°C and 27.2°C, which fully falls within the SNI and ASHRAE comfort zones. These findings confirm that banana peel waste can serve as a sustainable thermal insulation material, enhancing building energy efficiency and promoting green construction practices in tropical climates.

Hydrogen evolution from NaBH4 hydrolysis using graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide synthesized from banana Peel extract as catalysts

Iron and manganese are important water quality parameters, as their presence can lead to undesirable color and odor. Here, hydrochars (HCs) were synthesized from banana peels via hydrothermal carbonization to produce a sustainable adsorbent for efficient iron and manganese removal from water. A 23 factorial design with a central point was carried out to evaluate the variables: (i) activating agent (H3PO4 or NaOH), (ii) temperature (100 and 200 °C), and (iii) residence time (8 and 14 h). HC9 was performed in water at 150 °C for 11 h. Optimal performance was evaluated from Fe2+ and Mn2+ removal. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) confirmed functional groups in all HCs, while X-ray diffraction (XRD) broad peaks between 15-30° indicated an amorphous structure. HC9 showed the best performance for the adsorption of both metals. Equilibrium was reached at 200 min, and the kinetic data were best described by the pseudo-second-order model. The adsorption data were best fitted by the Langmuir model for Fe and the Freundlich model for Mn, with maximum adsorption capacities (qmax) values of 33.18 and 19.00 mg g⁻1 for Fe and Mn, respectively. Thus, adsorption using this biochar is a promising and environmentally friendly method for removing those metals from aqueous systems.

Valorization of banana peel waste into Zr-MOF@AC composite for sustainable methyl orange removal from water with kinetic, isothermal and thermodynamic insights

Facile synthesis of magnetic Ce-Fe3O4/banana peel biochar nanocomposite by in situ self-activation for enhanced Rhodamine B removal: Performance and mechanism

Process optimization, characterization and techno-economic analysis (TEA) of nanocellulose from banana peel wastes

Integrating waste valorization into engineering education: Experiential learning with powdered banana peel as a sustainable cementitious materials

Banana peel extract enhances the taste and quality of beef patties by modulating the maillard reaction.

Development and evaluation of functional pasta enriched with banana peel powder and dried vegetables

The widespread release of synthetic dyes into aquatic ecosystems poses a serious environmental risk as a result of their toxicity, persistence and resistance to biodegradation. In this study, cellulose extracted from banana peels was combined with synthesized copper(II) oxide nanoparticles to fabricate CuO-cellulose nanocomposites for visible-light-driven degradation of thymol blue (ThB). The cellulose was isolated through sequential alkaline treatment, bleaching and acid hydrolysis, while CuO nanoparticles were prepared via co-precipitation and subsequent calcination. The nanocomposites were obtained by refluxing CuO with dispersed cellulose under alkaline conditions. Structural and compositional analyses through XRD, FTIR, XPS and FE-SEM/EDX confirmed the monoclinic CuO phase, the preservation of cellulose crystallinity and uniform nanoparticle anchoring on the cellulose matrix. UV-Vis DRS and Tauc analysis revealed that incorporation of cellulose effectively narrowed the band gap of CuO, enhancing visible-light absorption and interfacial charge transfer. Photocatalytic performance was assessed using ThB dye under controlled pH and temperature. Among the investigated compositions, the CuO-cellulose (3%) nanocomposite at 0.20 g/L exhibited the highest degradation efficiency, attributed to improved adsorption capacity, suppressed charge recombination and enhanced ROS generation. The results demonstrate the synergistic interaction between CuO and cellulose, offering a low-cost, sustainable and efficient photocatalyst for the removal of organic pollutant under visible light.

Mouth dissolving tablets are meant for administration to the patients who cannot swallow, such as elderly, stroke victims, bedridden patients, patients affected by renal failure, and the patients who refuse to swallow, such as pediatric, geriatric, and psychiatric patients. The aim of the study is to formulate mouth dissolving tablet of Indomethacin for the pain management of Rheumatoid Arthritis and to improve the efficacy and patient compliance. In the present work, fast dissolving tablets of Indomethacin were prepared by direct compression method using Banana peel powder as natural super disintegrant with a view to enhance patient compliance and to avoid hepatic first pass metabolism and to improve its bioavailability. The prepared formulations of tablets were evaluated for hardness, thickness, friability, drug content uniformity, wetting time, disintegration and in-vitro dissolution studies. Thus, the study leads that Musa paradisicum (Banana peel powder) releases high amount of drug content which is used as natural super disintegrant.

Crude oil drives the global economy but also represents one of the most serious environmental threats when it reaches aquatic ecosystems, causing severe and persistent damage. Traditional decontamination methods remain limited in efficiency, cost, and operational time, highlighting the need for more sustainable and effective alternatives. In this context, nanotechnology emerges as a strategic tool for hydrocarbon mitigation, with magnetic nanoparticles (Fe₃O₄) standing out for their ability to adsorb organic compounds and be magnetically recovered through external magnetic fields. This study proposes an innovative and eco-friendly approach: the green synthesis of magnetic nanoparticles using the extract of banana peel from the Prata cultivar (Musa spp.), an abundant and low-cost agroindustrial residue, followed by cationic modification with cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) to enhance petroleum removal efficiency. A Plackett–Burman experimental design was applied to optimize synthesis parameters, and the resulting nanoparticles were characterized by XRD, FTIR, SEM–EDS, and magnetic force measurements. The results showed that the green route, combined with cationic modification, produced nanoparticles with smaller crystallite size, high colloidal stability, strong magnetic responsiveness, and an oil removal efficiency exceeding 90% in less than 20 minutes. In conclusion, green synthesis coupled with CTAB functionalization offers a sustainable, economical, and high-performance alternative for the treatment of oily wastewater, converting agricultural waste into high-value materials and contributing to environmental remediation.