In the early 1980s, a collaboration of scientific research and industrial enterprises led by the Yuzhnoye Design Bureau deployed intercontinental ballistic missiles on railway platforms for the first time in the world. The missiles created for this purpose matched the latest American MX missiles in tactical and technical characteristics, and the ability to move along the country's railways made them practically invulnerable to technical reconnaissance and weapons of a potential enemy. To test missiles and combat railway missile systems equipped with them in difficult climatic and geographical conditions of the Arkhangelsk region, an experimental test base (technical and launch sites, etc.) and infrastructure facilities (railways, bridges, etc.) were built, test formations were created, and engineering and technical personnel were trained. In 1983-1991, military units of the 53rd Scientific Research Range of the USSR Ministry of Defense conducted tests (flight, transport, climatic, resistance to the damaging factors of a nuclear explosion, etc.) of missiles, as well as combat railway complexes equipped with them in general. During the tests, significant changes were made to the design of the rocket and the complex as a whole. The tests resulted in the approval for service use of the RT-23UTTH combat railway missile system, which has had no counterparts in the world up to the present time. The purpose of this article is to summarize information about the testing of combat missile railway complexes at the 53rd Scientific Research Range of the USSR Ministry of Defense. In addition to official documents and technical literature, the authors used information from the archives of test military units and memoirs of direct participants in the events

This article examines the critical imbalance between missile attrition rates and replenishment capacity within the United States and allied defense resupply system under conditions of sustained, high-intensity warfare against peer adversaries. The issue is whether the United States possesses sufficient surge capacity to produce specific missiles in the time of war or during a military conflict in which it or one or more allies is engaged, where the United States supplies these allies with active missiles. For example, in Ukraine, Russian forces launched over 5,000 long-range munitions in July 2025 alone, including 728 drones in a single day, while Ukraine’s air defenses intercepted hundreds every night. Despite Western resupply efforts, Ukrainian forces continued to face persistent shortages of interceptors, cruise missiles, and guided munitions, underscoring the fragility of surge logistics and the time lag between battlefield consumption and industrial replenishment. Based on this information, two inferences are apparent. First, the United States lacks sufficient surge capacity. Additionally, Russia has substantial surge capacity. Furthermore, during the recent war between Israel and Iran, Iran fired 550 ballistic missiles and 1,000 drones, with 31 impacts in populated areas, resulting in 28 Israeli fatalities and over 3,000 injuries. Israel’s retaliatory campaign destroyed over 1,000 Iranian missiles and 250 launchers, yet the operation consumed thousands of precision-guided munitions and required over 600 aerial refueling sorties. The conflict exposed the vulnerability of even advanced missile defense systems under saturation conditions and highlighted the strategic cost of maintaining deterrence at scale. This example demonstrates that Iran indeed also has substantial surge capacity. These two examples reveal that attrition rates in modern missile warfare can exceed replenishment timelines by orders of magnitude. Contributing factors include legacy production constraints, component obsolescence, workforce reactivation delays, and mineral dependencies concentrated in geopolitically sensitive regions. Without immediate and future investment in surge capacity, the United States risks entering future conflicts with insufficient missile inventories and degraded strategic credibility.

This article examines the critical imbalance between missile attrition rates and replenishment capacity within the United States and allied defense resupply system under conditions of sustained, high-intensity warfare against peer adversaries. The issue is whether the United States possesses sufficient surge capacity to produce specific missiles in the time of war or during a military conflict in which it or one or more allies is engaged, where the United States supplies these allies with active missiles. For example, in Ukraine, Russian forces launched over 5,000 long-range munitions in July 2025 alone, including 728 drones in a single day, while Ukraine’s air defenses intercepted hundreds every night. Despite Western resupply efforts, Ukrainian forces continued to face persistent shortages of interceptors, cruise missiles, and guided munitions, underscoring the fragility of surge logistics and the time lag between battlefield consumption and industrial replenishment. Based on this information, two inferences are apparent. First, the United States lacks sufficient surge capacity. Additionally, Russia has substantial surge capacity. Furthermore, during the recent war between Israel and Iran, Iran fired 550 ballistic missiles and 1,000 drones, with 31 impacts in populated areas, resulting in 28 Israeli fatalities and over 3,000 injuries. Israel’s retaliatory campaign destroyed over 1,000 Iranian missiles and 250 launchers, yet the operation consumed thousands of precision-guided munitions and required over 600 aerial refueling sorties. The conflict exposed the vulnerability of even advanced missile defense systems under saturation conditions and highlighted the strategic cost of maintaining deterrence at scale. This example demonstrates that Iran indeed also has substantial surge capacity. These two examples reveal that attrition rates in modern missile warfare can exceed replenishment timelines by orders of magnitude. Contributing factors include legacy production constraints, component obsolescence, workforce reactivation delays, and mineral dependencies concentrated in geopolitically sensitive regions. Without immediate and future investment in surge capacity, the United States risks entering future conflicts with insufficient missile inventories and degraded strategic credibility.

This research posits that Indian development of hypersonic weapons is likely to undermine the strategic stability of South Asia because hypersonic weapons would incentivize India to contemplate counterforce options against Pakistan. Using a combine of technological determinism and strategic stability theories, this study explores the Indian hypersonic technology based weapon systems and how they might denunciate strategic stability dynamics in South Asia. The study explains implications of Indian hypersonic weapons on Pakistan’s deterrence stability. The study finds that technological determinism caused by hypersonic weapons would compel India to harbor preemptive counterforce strike ambitions against Pakistan’s nuclear forces. Also, in a crisis situation Indian decision makers are likely to be emboldened by possession of hypersonic weapons technology and take escalatory steps instead of crisis mitigation. In response Pakistan should enhance its second strike capability by increasing number of nuclear capable submarines and by increasing the range of Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile. Pakistan needs to work on dispersion and camouflage/concealment of her nuclear assets; and develop her own hypersonic technology in collaboration with China. These measures by Pakistan would help maintain strategic stability in South Asia.

The article presents a classification of military-purpose unmanned aerial vehicles and analyses the main characteristics and combat capabilities of existing long-range loitering munitions. Drawing on combat experience, it outlines their principal advantages and disadvantages relative to cruise and ballistic missiles. Considering the roles and primary tasks of the units and sub-units of the Missile Forces of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, as well as the specifics of their tactics of employment, the article draws conclusions on the feasibility and advisability of equipping these units with long-range loitering munitions and offers recommendations on their key characteristics.

ABSTRACT Low Sensitive High Energy Materials are essential for the latest research, CL-20 has the potential to be applied for high-velocity ballistic missiles. DFT showed the RDX as potential conformer to form energetic CL-20 cocrystals by intermolecular secondary bonding with reduced mechanical sensitivity. The 1:1 ratio of CL-20 and RDX cocrystal (EECC) had the best best mechanical properties and was used in present work. To attain enhanced reduced sensitivity, EECC is coated with optimized quantity of HTPB. The HTPB coating does not affect the crystal phase of EECC, as seen from XRD. Impact and friction tests show reduced mechanical sensitivity of EECC and coated EECC and results are supported by surface morphology with chemical homogeneity seen from FESEM images. The bond stretching studies carried by FTIR and Raman spectroscopy which supports the theoretical results. The energetic performance and thermal conductivity (stability) show considerable heat release and these results are encouraging and promising for making these potential substitutes for pure CL-20.

For the first time, the feasibility of implementing a polytropic pressurization system (PS) for a cylindrical tank containing boiling liquid oxygen in the first stage of an expendable launch vehicle (LV) has been investigated. A retrospective analysis was conducted on the oxygen tank PSs implemented in intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and LVs of the USA and USSR. Attention is drawn to the successful, though fragmentary, use of polytropic PSs at the end of the second-stage operation in three US ICBMs. Despite the variety of liquid rocket engine designs developed to date, hot helium pressurization systems have become the most widely used for oxygen tanks. However, their advantages (except for “helium is light”) have not been systematized, and their effective application domains remain undefined. The pressure requirements in the boiling oxygen tank of a medium-class LV first stage are thoroughly examined using the “Zenit” launch vehicle as an example. It is noted that from the very first second of flight onward, the minimum required tank gas pressure is dictated by stability requirements and is approximately 0.1 MPa. This value corresponds to the saturated vapor pressure of oxygen at fueling temperature. At the end of engine operation, it is essential to ensure cavitation-free performance of the propellant feed system and engine pump under all conditions. A methodology is presented for certifying the physical modeling approach for determining the parameters of a polytropic PS, based on the example of a hot helium system. During modeling, influencing factors (external heat flux to the tank, tank oscillations, liquid oxygen outflow rate, and its initial temperature) were varied across a wide range. As a result, key parameters of the polytropic PS required for mass-budget calculations were obtained. It was found to be not inferior to the hot helium system, while offering significant structural simplicity and 100% reliability. It requires no additional components to operate. Simple structural solutions are proposed to improve the parameters of the polytropic PSsignificantly. For the first time, its undeniable advantages have been systematized.

The Houthi group, which controls Yemen, has imposed a blockade in the Red Sea against ships flying the flags of certain countries, prompting the UN Security Council to issue a resolution. This resolution has become a basis for the United States and several other countries to begin attacking the Houthi group, escalating the situation in the Red Sea. This research discusses the conflict in the Red Sea and the lessons that can be learned to strengthen the maritime defense of the Indonesia’s. Using a qualitative approach and descriptive analysis methods, data was collected through literature studies. The conflict involving the Houthi Group in Yemen highlights the importance of mastering modern defense technologies, such as ballistic missiles and drones, when facing larger powers. The research findings identify the significance of self-reliance in strengthening defense systems, alongside the necessity for Indonesia to continuously foster international cooperation. Ultimately, this study aims to provide recommendations for Indonesia to enhance its maritime defense capacity.

Modern air defence systems are facing accelerated development of ballis tic, hypersonic, and unmanned threats that increasingly surpass the capa bilities of traditional defensive technologies. This paper analyses the main challenges posed to air defence by ballistic missiles and various categories of unmanned aerial vehicles. Through case studies from Ukraine, Israel, and the Gulf War, it illustrates the limited effectiveness of existing defence systems, particularly against sophisticated threats. Special attention is giv en to the concepts of air defence saturation through drone swarms and the economic implications of such tactics. In the final section, technological solutions for future defence are presented, including a multi-layered or bital sensor architecture, directed energy weapons, and electronic warfare systems. The paper concludes that the future effectiveness of air defence will depend on the ability to integrate various technologies into flexible and economically sustainable defence systems.

Abstract The rise of civilian-targeted warfare, including ballistic missile and drone (BMD) attacks, has globalized the need for rapid, trauma-informed mental health care for older adults. This study contributes to system-level innovation by identifying, in the immediate days following exposure, clinical predictors of peritraumatic distress (PD), a key risk factor for long-term psychopathology, in aging populations. Amid the Iran-Israel-US armed conflict, a 12-day conflict in June 2025 with daily BMD attacks affected tens of thousands of Israelis (infrastructure damage, evacuations, injuries and deaths), underscoring the importance of mental health preparedness. Yet, the psychological toll of BMD attacks on civilians has mostly been explored only months after exposure, and even less is known about their immediate impact on older adults. Two to five days after the cease-fire, we surveyed a national sample of 710 Israeli adults aged 60–85 (M = 71.86). More than half (56%) exceeded the clinical threshold of PD (PD-Inventory score ≥14). Logistic regressions (Nagelkerke-r²=.53), adjusting for sociodemographic and situational factors, revealed five significant predictors: (A) Exposure to the BMD trauma (OR = 2.3); (B) Pre-existing probable-PTSD from the October-7 attack (OR = 4.9); (C) Sleep difficulties (OR = 1.1); (D) Intensive media engagement (OR = 1.3); and (E) Decreased national identity (OR = 0.7). Findings illustrate the severe immediate psychological impact of BMD attacks on older adults. They identify scalable, clinically actionable indicators (behavioral reactions, pre-existing conditions and emotional factors) of acute stress within days of large-scale national trauma. Health systems globally can strengthen age-friendly mental health care by integrating such early screening tools into post-crisis response.

This paper is devoted to an improved adaptive "current" statistical(CS) model, aiming to improve the accuracy and robustness of tracking the powered phase of multi-stage ballistic missiles under unknown ballistic parameters. By introducing the Jerk model idea and incorporating the Jerk into the calculation of acceleration variance, the target acceleration variance in the model has been improved, enhancing the tracking ability of the model for weak maneuvering targets. Furthermore, by means of the target maneuvering detection function, the adaptive adjustment of the maneuver frequency in the model has been achieved, which improves the ability to combat sudden changes of target maneuvering. Simulation results demonstrate that the present model is able to stably track the powered phase state of multi-stage ballistic missile and precisely estimate the shutdown point states, exhibiting higher tracking accuracy and stronger robustness comparing with the conventional CS model and other adaptive CS models.

ABSTRACT Biodiversity and conservation are often the least noticed during armed conflicts. From October 1st, 2024, and again between June 13 and 24th, 2025, a brief but intense military conflict broke out between Israel and Iran. Iran primarily launched ballistic missile strikes, which Israel attempted to intercept using dedicated missiles. During both periods, we conducted a movement‐monitoring experiment on Spalerosophis diadema snakes using accelerometer biologgers. In total, movements of four snakes were recorded during the conflict. We found that snakes exhibited immediate movement responses to missile attacks that produced loud explosion noises. Moreover, the strength of these movements increased with the intensity of the attacks; however, snakes showed little to no response to such noises after feeding. Here, we report for the first time the movement responses of snakes to missile attacks producing loud explosions. While the consequences of human armed conflict for wildlife may vary depending on the context, our findings emphasize that the role of wildlife as potential victims is often overlooked.

This paper explores the applications and limitations of purely inertial navigation systems, the use of global navigation satellite systems, and the integration of inertial navigation systems with global navigation satellite systems. A full trajectory simulation accounts for gravitational anomalies, atmospheric effects, and instrumentation errors with Monte Carlo sampling for uncertain parameters and complete error propagation. This simulation disambiguates the contributions of each source of uncertainty to the total error in the final impact point for a range of ballistic trajectories with and without maneuverable reentry vehicles and estimates the limitations to accuracy at intercontinental ranges. Based on these results, the paper discusses the potential for integration of inertial navigation systems with global navigation satellite systems to improve the accuracy of intercontinental ballistic missiles.

This study assesses the vulnerability of silo-based ICBMs to conventional prompt strike weapons. The study’s focus is on hypersonic boost-glide weapons, but its results are applicable to other hypersonic vehicles such as ballistic missile reentry vehicles. It finds that, if US hypersonic weapons achieve accuracies consistent with stated design goals, they would be able to defeat silo-based ICBMs with comparable efficacy to nuclear-armed ballistic missiles. Because these weapons do not follow ballistic trajectories for most of flight, the United States has argued they are not subject to numerical limits under New START, a position it could maintain under future arms control agreements employing similar counting rules. Thus, US precision-guided, conventional hypersonic weapons programs offer the United States a plausible means of expanding its counterforce capabilities unencumbered by limits imposed under nuclear arms control treaties. These programs, if pursued without constraints, are therefore likely to undermine great power strategic stability.

Trajectory tracking algorithm of ballistic missile in the ascent phase based on deep learning

Abstract You have a satellite (spacecraft or asteroid) that moves under the gravitational influence of a massive central body and follows a Keplerian orbit around it (ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola). Given measurements of two positions in its orbit, what is the family of possible orbital paths that connects them? I use the conic section orbit’s semi-latus rectum, directly related to orbital angular momentum, to parameterise these orbits. The solutions have applications to orbit determination, ballistic missiles, interplanetary interception, and targeted re-entry. I also show how they can be applied to solve the Lambert problem of finding the unique transfer orbit that connects two points in a specified time interval. These results are accessible to advanced undergraduate students in physics or aerospace engineering. Supplementary materials are provided online.

ABSTRACT France’s nuclear weapons arsenal has remained stable in recent years, but significant modernizations are underway of the country’s ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, submarines, aircraft, and nuclear industrial complex. We estimate that France currently has a nuclear weapons stockpile of approximately 290 warheads. In addition, approximately 80 retired warheads are awaiting dismantlement, giving a total inventory of approximately 370 nuclear warheads. The Nuclear Notebook is researched and written by the staff of the Federation of American Scientists’ Nuclear Information Project: director Hans M. Kristensen, associate director Matt Korda, and senior research associates Eliana Johns and Mackenzie Knight-Boyle. To see all previous Nuclear Notebook columns in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists dating back to 1987, go to https://thebulletin.org/nuclear-notebook/.

A trajectory tracking algorithm of ballistic missile in the ascent phase with unknown noise statistical characteristics

Abstract: The author argues that Ian Fleming's Moonraker touches on some of the most pressing concerns of the 1950s and beyond. With his background in naval intelligence, Fleming foreshadows the role that intercontinental ballistic missiles would come to play in the threat of nuclear warfare and the promise of space travel. Unique to the spy novel genre and to more traditional works of postwar literature, Moonraker also showcases women in the workforce and undermines a prevailing bias against them. Rewriting various myths, including Pygmalion and the story of the Fall, Fleming advocates for greater gender equality while challenging political misrepresentations of violence and nuclear technology.

India has upgraded its capability to shoot down airborne systems in the last two decades. The induction of advanced platforms like the S-400 and Spyder, domestically produced Akash, and the Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) system's ongoing development reflects its intentions to build a formidable air defence network. These capabilities have been enhanced with the induction of long-range early warning radars and their integration into the overall air defence network. The study succinctly highlights these actions, explains them in detail, and shows how India's continuous effort in this domain threatens Pakistan. In the last section, the article explores implications for Pakistan and provides practical solutions to the problem. The paper suggests that by pointing towards a few countermeasures the country’s armed forces can take to maintain credible deterrence and strategic stability in South Asia amidst growing Indian air defence capabilities.