Back Muscle Forces Research Articles

Estimation of lower back muscle force in a lifting task using wearable IMUs

Low back pain is commonly reported in occupational settings due to factors such as heavy lifting and poor ergonomic practices, often resulting in significant healthcare expenses and lowered productivity. Assessment tools for human motion and ergonomic risk at the workplace are still limited. Therefore, this study aimed to assess lower back muscle and joint reaction forces in laboratory conditions using wearable inertial measurement units (IMUs) during weight lifting, a frequently high-risk workplace task. Ten able-bodied participants were instructed to lift a 28 lbs. box while surface electromyography sensors, IMUs, and a camera-based motion capture system recorded their muscle activity and body motion. The data recorded by IMUs and motion capture system were used to estimate lower back muscle and joint reaction forces via musculoskeletal modeling. Lower back muscle patterns matched well with electromyography recordings. The normalized mean absolute differences between muscle forces estimated based on measurements of IMUs and cameras were less than 25 %, and the statistical parametric mapping results indicated no significant difference between the forces estimated by both systems. However, abrupt changes in motion, such as lifting initiation, led to significant differences (p < 0.05) between the muscle forces. Furthermore, the maximum L5-S1 joint reaction force estimated using IMU data was significantly lower (p < 0.05) than those estimated by cameras during weight lifting and lowering. The study showed how kinematic errors from IMUs propagated through the musculoskeletal model and affected the estimations of muscle forces and joint reaction forces. Our findings showed the potential of IMUs for in-field ergonomic risk evaluations.

Comparison between EMG-based and optimisation-based approaches for back-muscle forces and intervertebral efforts

Comparison between EMG-based and optimisation-based approaches for back-muscle forces and intervertebral efforts

Analysing the effect of wearable lift-assist vest in squat lifting task using back muscle EMG data and musculoskeletal model.

The most common disorders of the musculoskeletal system are low back disorders. They cause significant direct and indirect costs to different societies especially in lifting occupations. To reduce the risk of low back disorders, mechanical lifting aids have been used to decrease low back muscle forces. But there are very few direct ways to calculate muscle forces and examine the effect of personal lift-assist devices, so biomechanical models ought to be used to examine the quality of these devices for assisting back muscles in lifting tasks. The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of a designed wearable lift-assist vest (WLAV) in the reduction of erector spinae muscle forces during symmetric squat lifting tasks. Two techniques of muscle calculation were used, the electromyography-based method and the optimization-based model. The first uses electromyography data of erector spinae muscles and its linear relationship with muscle force to estimate their forces, and the second uses a developed musculoskeletal model to calculate back muscle forces using an optimization-based method. The results show that these techniques reduce the average value of erector spinae muscle forces by 45.38 (± 4.80) % and 42.03 (± 8.24) % respectively. Also, both methods indicated approximately the same behaviour in changing muscle forces during 10 to 60 degrees of trunk flexion using WLAV. The use of WLAV can help to reduce the activity of low back muscles in lifting tasks by transferring the external load effect to the assistive spring system utilized in it, so this device may help people lift for longer.

EMG measurements as inputs for a musculoskeletal model: quantification of abdominal and back muscle forces in static postures

In spine surgery, scoliosis, herniated discs and spondylitis are currently treated by spinal fusion. However, the choice of an optimal spinal fusion level has still limitations. Indeed, no objectiv...

Lumbar loads and trunk kinematics in people with a transtibial amputation during sit-to-stand

People with a transtibial amputation have numerous secondary health conditions, including an increased prevalence of low back pain. This increased prevalence may be partially explained by altered low back biomechanics during movement. The purpose of this study was to compare trunk kinematics and L4-L5 lumbar loads in people with and without a transtibial amputation during sit-to-stand. Motion capture, ground reaction force and electromyographic data were collected from eight people with a unilateral transtibial amputation and eight people without an amputation during five self-paced sit-to-stand motions. A musculoskeletal model of the torso, lumbar spine, pelvis, lower limbs, and 294 muscles was used in a static optimization framework to quantify L4-L5 loads, low back muscle forces, and trunk kinematics. Participants with an amputation had greater peak and average L4-L5 loading in compression compared to control participants, with peak loading occurring shortly after liftoff from the chair. At the instant of peak loading, participants with an amputation had significantly greater segmental trunk lateral bending and trunk-pelvis axial rotation toward the intact side, and significantly greater segmental trunk axial rotation toward the prosthetic side compared to control participants. Participants with an amputation also had greater peak frontal plane and transverse plane segmental trunk angular velocity. The postural differences observed in people with a transtibial amputation were consistent with their ground reaction force asymmetry. The cumulative effects of the altered movement strategy used by people with an amputation may result in an increased risk for low back pain development over time.

A Mechanical model for flexible exercise bars to study the influence of the initial position of the bar on lumbar discs and muscles forces.

A single-degree-of-freedom model is considered for flexible exercise bars based on the lumped-element approach. By considering the side segment of a flexible bar as a cantilever beam with an equivalent mass at the free end, its free-vibration response, as well as the forced response under the excitation of the grip, are expressed parametrically. Experiments are performed on a particular flexible bar (FLEXI_BAR) in order to obtain numerical values for quantifying the model's parameters. The model is also computationally simulated to study the response of the flexible bar to various excitations. The results are imported into a multi-segment musculoskeletal software (AnyBody), where the effect of different initial hand positions on the lumbar disc and back muscle forces is investigated (including Longissimus, Iliocostalis, and Transversus) during up-down exercises. The results show that all intervertebral discs and muscles forces are more sensitive to the horizontal position of the bar as compared to its vertical position.

Trunk active response and spinal forces in sudden forward loading – analysis of the role of perturbation load and pre-perturbation conditions by a kinematics-driven model

Understanding the central nervous system (CNS) response strategy to trunk perturbations could help in prevention of back injuries and development of rehabilitation and treatment programs. This study aimed to investigate biomechanical response of the trunk musculoskeletal system under sudden forward loads, accounting for pre-perturbation conditions (preloading, initial posture and abdominal antagonistic coactivation) and perturbation magnitudes. Using a trunk kinematics-driven iterative finite element (FE) model, temporal profiles of measured kinematics and external load along with subjects’ weights were prescribed to predict thoracolumbar muscle forces/latencies and spinal loads for twelve healthy subjects when tested in six conditions during pre- and post-perturbation periods. Results demonstrated that preloading the trunk significantly (i.e., p<0.05) increased pre-perturbation back muscle forces but significantly decreased post-perturbation peak muscle active forces and muscle latencies. Initial trunk flexion significantly increased muscle active and passive forces before the perturbation and their peak values after the perturbation, which in turn caused much larger spinal loads. Abdominal muscles antagonistic pre-activation did not alter the internal variables investigated in this study. Increase in sudden applied load increased muscle reflex activities and spinal forces; a 50N increase in sudden load (i.e., when comparing 50N to 100N) increased the L5-S1 compression force by 1327N under 5N preload and by 1374N under 50N preload. Overall, forces on the spine and hence risk of failure substantially increased in sudden forward loading when the magnitude of sudden load increased and when the trunk was initially in a flexed posture. In contrast, a higher initial preload diminished reflex latencies and compression forces.

A revised back compressive force estimation model for ergonomic evaluation of lifting tasks

Occupational back pain and injury are common and costly issues. Biomechanical models are often used to quantify job risk by estimating back muscle forces. In general, the most accurate models are also the most complex, creating demand for models that are both straightforward and accurate. An existing, basic hand-calculation back compressive force estimation model (HCBCF v1.0) was revised in two iterations to reduce the error induced by original simplifying assumptions. Lifting tasks (n=6000) from observational data were used to compare the HCBCF models with the University of Michigan 3D Static Strength Prediction Program (3DSSPP) The greatest r(2) (0.97) between the HCBCF v1.2 and the 3DSSPP was achieved with gender-specific equations designed to account for differences between males and females and a more detailed estimation of torso flexion angle and upper body mass center location. This gender-specific back compression and risk estimation model is a relatively simple alternative to computer-based back compressive force models. In addition the hand-calculation can be used as a general survey tool to determine which jobs should be analyzed with more sophisticated computer-based models.

Effects of slouching and muscle contraction on the strain of the iliolumbar ligament

The study consisted of biomechanical modelling and in vitro experiments. The objective of the study was to find a mechanical cause of acute low back pain (LBP) in everyday situations. The precise mechanism producing LBP is still under discussion. Most biomechanical studies link the concepts of stooped postures and buckling instability of the spine under high compressive load. No biomechanical model addresses situations with small or neglectable compressive spinal load. The proposed conceptual model describes strain on the iliolumbar ligaments (ILs) when slouching from standing upright. Delayed or absent recruitment of back muscles that protect against hyperkyphosis of the lumbar spine is a conditional factor. Erector spinae and multifidus muscle forces are included, representing a bifurcation in back muscle force: one part acting on the iliac bones and one part acting on the sacrum. The multifidus muscle action on the sacrum may produce nutation which can be counteracted by pelvic floor muscles, which would link back problems and pelvic floor problems. The effect of simulated muscle tension on the ILs and the L5-S1 intervertebral disc angle was measured using embalmed specimens. Forces were applied to simulate erector spinae and sacral part of multifidus tension, bilateral up to 100 N each. Strain gauge sensors registered elongation of the ILs. Explorative biomechanical model calculations show that dynamic slouching, driven by upper body weight and (as an example) rectus abdominis muscle force may produce failure load of the spinal column and the ILs. The quasi-static test on embalmed specimens showed a significant increase of IL elongation with simulated rectus abdominis muscle force. Adding erector spinae or multifidus muscle tension eased the ILs. Sudden slouching of the upright trunk may create failure risk for the spine and ILs. This loading mode may be prevented by controlling loss of lumbar lordosis with erector spinae and multifidus muscle force.

The Role of Genetics and Environment in Lifting Force and Isometric Trunk Extensor Endurance

Our understanding of what different back performance tests are measuring is limited. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relative contributions of genetics and unique and common environmental factors for 3 tests of back muscle performance in a classic twin analysis. The subjects were a population-based sample of 122 monozygotic and 131 dizygotic male twin pairs aged 35 to 69 years (mean=49.9, SD=7.7). Variance component analysis was applied to estimate genetic and environmental influences on isokinetic and psychophysical lifting and isometric trunk extensor endurance test performance. The Cholesky decomposition genetic factor model was used to estimate genetic and environmental correlations of these variables. Path analysis was applied to study determinants of isokinetic and psychophysical lifting and isometric trunk extensor endurance test performance. Genetic effects accounted for 60%, 33%, and 5% of the total variance of isokinetic and psychophysical lifting forces and isometric trunk extensor endurance, respectively, and unique environmental factors accounted for 35%, 49%, and 61% of the variance. Genetics had a dominant role in isokinetic lifting and unique environmental factors in isometric trunk extensor endurance. The relatively high role of genetics in lifting force suggests the potential to increase and sustain changes in back muscle force in the general population may be particularly challenging.

MYOELECTRIC RESPONSE OF BACK MUSCLES TO VERTICAL RANDOM WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION WITH DIFFERENT MAGNITUDES AT DIFFERENT POSTURES

Back muscle forces contribute essentially to the whole-body vibration-induced spinal load. The electromyogram (EMG) can help to estimate these forces during whole-body vibration (WBV). Thirty-eight subjects were exposed to identical random low-frequency WBV (0·7, 1·0 and 1·4 m/s-2 r.m.s. weighted acceleration) at a relaxed, erect and bent forward postures. The acceleration of the seat and the force between the seat and the buttocks were measured. Six EMGs were derived from the right side of the m. trapezius pars descendens, m. ileocostalis lumborum pars thoracis, m. ileocostalis lumborum pars lumborum; m. longissimus thoracis pars thoracis, m. longissimus thoracis pars lumborum, and lumbar multifidus muscle. All data were filtered for anti-aliasing and sampled with 1000 Hz. Artefacts caused by the ECG in the EMG were identified and eliminated in the time domain using wavelets. The individually rectified and normalized EMGs were averaged across subjects. The EMGs without WBV exhibited characteristic patterns for the three postures examined. The coherence and transfer functions indicated characteristic myoelectric responses to random WBV with several effects of posture and WBV magnitude. A comprehensive set of transfer functions from the seat acceleration or the mean normalized input force to the mean processed EMG was presented.The results can be used for the development of more sophisticated models with a separate control of various back muscle groups. However, the EMG–force relationship under dynamic conditions needs to be examined in more detail before the results can be implemented. Since different reflex mechanisms depending on the frequency of WBV are linked with different types of active muscle fibres, various time delays between the EMG and muscle force may be necessary.

Examination of the myoelectric activity of back muscles during random vibration – methodical approach and first results

Objective. To elaborate methods for an elimination of artefacts and the analysis of the relationship between random whole-body vibration and electromyographic responses of back muscles. Design. A procedure involving wavelets and digital filtering has been used for the removal of artefacts from the electromyogram during whole-body vibration. Background. Back muscle forces contribute essentially to the whole-body vibration-induced spinal load. The electromyogram can help to estimate these forces during whole-body vibration. Methods. 38 subjects were exposed to identical random low-frequency whole-body vibration. Artefacts caused by the electrocardiogram in the electromyogram were identified by appropriate wavelets and eliminated in the time-domain. After averaging the individual high-pass filtered and rectified undistorted electromyograms across subjects, the transfer function from seat acceleration to the average electromyogram was determined and used for the prediction of the electromyogram. Results. A sufficient procedure involving wavelets and digital filtering has been elaborated for the removal of artefacts from the electromyogram of back muscles during whole-body vibration. A systematic relationship between random vibration and back muscle-response was obtained and described. The transfer function suggests two different reflex-mechanisms – one elicited below, the other above 4 Hz. Conclusions. The approach of analysing and predicting the muscle-response to random vibration by using the transfer function seems to be promising and could be a valuable tool for the future calculation of muscle forces as an input to active models. Relevance The knowledge of the extent and timing of the back muscle-response to random whole-body vibration is relevant for an improved evaluation of whole-body vibration with respect to health.

The effectiveness of weight-belts during the squat exercise

The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of weight-belts during the performance of the parallel squat exercise. Six subjects were filmed (40 fps) as they performed three trials at each of three belt conditions (NB, none; LB, light; HB, heavy) in random order and three load conditions (70, 80, 90% 1RM (one repetition maximum] in increasing order. The parameters examined were collected and interfaced to a computer via an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter: ground reaction forces, intra-abdominal pressure (IAP), and EMG for the rectus abdominus (RA), external oblique (EO), and erector spinae (ES) muscles. Most differences were observed during the 90% 1RM condition, and only they are presented in this paper. Maximum IAP values were always greater (P less than 0.05) for the weight-belt conditions (LB, 29.2; HB, 29.1 greater th an NB, 26,8 kPa). Similar results were observed for the mean IAP. The integrated EMG (iEMG) activity of the muscles and adjusted mean values for back compressive force and back muscle force followed a similar but opposite pattern, with NB being the greatest. ES mEMG/(L5/S1) values for HB (18.1%) were the least, followed by LB (20.01%) and NB (22.3%). Few differences were observed between belt types. These data suggest that a weight-belt can aid in supporting the trunk by increasing IAP.

Lower back muscle forces in pushing and pulling

In the investigation of lower back stress, the muscle forces of the erector spinae and the rectus abdominis are often calculated using the two-dimensional biomechanical model. These muscle forces are used to estimate the compressive forces at L5/S1 disc. This paper presents a study of the muscle forces predicted by a two-dimensional biomechanical model during pushing and pulling and myoelectric activity from the corresponding muscles. The goal was to investigate whether a simple two muscle torso model would reasonably estimate the muscle actions in pushing and pulling tasks. Six subjects participated in the experiment. EMG (rms) value was used as an indicator of muscle forces. The results show high correlation between the predicted muscle forces and the measured root-mean-square EMG values in trunk pushing and pulling (r2 = 0.93) and hand pushing and pulling (r2 = 0.96) in an erect posture with hips braced but low in hand pushing and pulling using a free posture (r2 = 0.37).

Biomechanics of the squat exercise using a modified center of mass bar

The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of load height on selected performance characteristics of a squat exercise. A lower center of mass bar was designed that allowed the integrity of the squat exercise to be maintained while possibly reducing the chances of injury. Five trials were performed with the center of mass of the bar was set at shoulder height (C1) and lowered 18% (C2) and 36% (C3) of the subject's height below the normal bar position using the inverted "U" bar. All trials were filmed as the subjects lifted on a force platform. A balloon catheter was inserted into the subject's recta to monitor intra-abdominal pressure (IAP). High correlations were found between IAP, joint moment, and force data. Many of the critical parameters occurred just after the lowest squat position. Significant differences (P less than 0.05) in trunk angle excursion and trunk angular velocity indicated a greater ease of hip extension for the center of mass bar conditions. No differences were observed between conditions for thigh and knee angles and joint moments indicating kinematic similarity for the lower extremity. IAP was always least for C2 and C3, while compression, shear, and back muscle forces did not differ. It was estimated that the greater IAP was responsible for relieving back muscle forces and compression by up to 15 and 21%, respectively, and increased stress with the weight at shoulder height stimulated a response for greater IAP to help alleviate the stresses on the spine.