Wild animals are essential for preserving ecological balance and supporting economic stability. Nonetheless, they are at risk of extinction. Among the factors contributing to this endangerment are pathogens carried by blood-sucking arthropods, especially ticks. Hemoparasites such as Anaplasma, Babesia, and Theileria are spread to wildlife, livestock, and humans mainly by ticks. These intraerythrocytic parasites are traditionally identified by microscopic examination of blood smears stained with Giemsa. However, this method does not always accurately identify coinfections of hemoparasites. Moreover, detecting low levels of parasitism remains a challenge, making it unsuitable for timely diagnosis and predisposing wild animals to possible outbreaks, especially in captive settings. In this study, a multiplex polymerase chain reaction (mPCR) assay was developed to simultaneously detect Anaplasma, Babesia, and Theileria at the genus level in wild ungulates. Three pairs of specific, sensitive primers were designed based on the 16S ribosomal RNA gene (Anaplasma species) and the 18S ribosomal RNA gene (Babesia and Theileria) to generate target products of 318 bp for Anaplasma, 479 bp for Babesia , and 178 bp for Theileria. Blood samples were collected from a total of 60 captive Gazella bennettii (family Bovidae) and Axis porcinus (family Cervidae) from various zoos and wildlife parks in Punjab, Pakistan. To increase sample diversity and size, both families were included in the sampling process. A total of 40/60 (66.66%) samples tested positive, which were evaluated by PCR. Total genomic DNA was extracted for molecular detection by PCR. Three sets of newly designed primers based on genus were used to optimize multiplex PCR for melting temperature and crosslinking among primers. The multiplex PCR assay produced results consistent with monoplex PCR when using the newly designed primers. We detected hemoparasitic infections in 65% of samples, with infection rates of 25% for Anaplasma, 0% for Babesia, and 40% for Theileria. Downstream sequencing also confirmed these PCR results. This assay is a valuable complementary tool for routine, simultaneous, early, and accurate detection of Anaplasma, Babesia, and Theileria, supporting efforts to reduce indiscriminate antibiotic use, control antibiotic resistance, and protect endangered wild ungulates.

Dystocia is an important cause of perinatal morbidity and mortality in domestic and wild ruminants, with fetal malposture being a major contributing factor in cervids. This report describes the clinical management of dystocia due to bilateral shoulder flexion in a full-term free-ranging hog deer (Axis porcinus). A 34 kg doe was presented with prolonged labor and protrusion of the fetal head. Clinical examination confirmed anterior longitudinal presentation, dorsosacral position, and bilateral flexion of the forelimbs. Absence of fetal reflexes and movement established fetal death prior to intervention. As manual mutation was not feasible due to impaction and limited pelvic space, partial fetotomy was performed under epidural anesthesia. Decapitation of the fetal head followed by sequential forelimb extension allowed controlled vaginal delivery of the dead fawn. Supportive therapy and post-procedural care were administered for three days. No intraoperative complications or postpartum disorders were observed, and the dam recovered uneventfully. This case demonstrates that partial fetotomy can be effectively adapted for managing obstructive dystocia in cervids when timely diagnosis and appropriate obstetrical techniques are applied.

Bovidae and Cervidae are the most important families of mammals. Owing to extensive human interference, excessive use of natural resources, unregulated hunting, and other adverse environmental conditions, some of these wild species are now facing the risk of extinction. Genetic variation underpins animal survival from an evolutionary perspective, which is vital for the conservation of animals, particularly endangered species that, if not protected, will soon become extinct. Therefore, the current study was planned to investigate the molecular phylogeny and genetic diversity of Bovidae (Boselaphus tragocamelus, Antilope cervicapra) and Cervidae (Axis axis, Axis porcinus) families of wild deer in Pakistan using the collective effect of mitochondrial cytochrome b, cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (Cox1), and D-loop regions.For the genetic diversity study, we collected blood samples from unrelated wild deer of all four species (n=100; 25 per species) in EDTA-containing vacutainers. Genomic DNA was extracted using the phenol-chloroform method. PCR was performed to amplify the cytochrome b, Cox1, and D-loop genes, and the PCR products were sequenced in Foster City, CA, USA. In this study, we found evidence of a significant reduction in genetic diversity among members of Bovidae and Cervidae from different regions of Pakistan. The findings of the current study revealed the genetic distinctness of the studied wild deer species and their evolutionary divergence. Moreover, native deer populations exhibited reduced within-population genetic variability; therefore, a viable conservation plan is needed to ensure their survival and protection under changing environmental conditions.

Transcriptomic differences in immune- and stress-related pathways associated with artificial rearing in the endangered hog deer (Axis porcinus)

The hog deer (Axis porcinus), an Endangered grassland specialist of South and Southeast Asia, occurs at low densities across much of its range due to habitat loss and fragmentation. In Corbett Tiger Reserve, populations are mainly restricted to isolated alluvial grasslands, with major declines following the submergence of prime habitat by the Kalagarh Dam in 1974. To document distribution and provide rapid count indices, a three-day reconnaissance survey (22-24 May 2025) was undertaken in all 12 forest ranges, covering 141 beats during peak activity hours (06:00-10:00 am). Direct sighting counts were made daily, with the highest tally used as an index of relative abundance. Hog deer were recorded in only four ranges, indicating a restricted distribution. A total of 189 individuals were recorded, with observations expressed as relative abundance indices (CTR 0.15 ind/km²; Dhikala 2.31 ind/ km²). Dhikala accounted for 175 individuals, concentrated in the Dhikala Chaur and Jalashay beats, underscoring the role of high-quality alluvial grasslands and perennial water. As a rapid count without detection correction, findings represent indices rather than true population estimates. Results highlight the need for grassland management, invasive species control, and habitat connectivity to ensure long-term conservation of hog deer in CTR.

The hog deer (Axis porcinus), an Endangered grassland specialist of South and Southeast Asia, occurs at low densities across much of its range due to habitat loss and fragmentation. In Corbett Tiger Reserve, populations are mainly restricted to isolated alluvial grasslands, with major declines following the submergence of prime habitat by the Kalagarh Dam in 1974. To document distribution and provide rapid count indices, a three-day reconnaissance survey (22-24 May 2025) was undertaken in all 12 forest ranges, covering 141 beats during peak activity hours (06:00-10:00 am). Direct sighting counts were made daily, with the highest tally used as an index of relative abundance. Hog deer were recorded in only four ranges, indicating a restricted distribution. A total of 189 individuals were recorded, with observations expressed as relative abundance indices (CTR 0.15 ind/km²; Dhikala 2.31 ind/ km²). Dhikala accounted for 175 individuals, concentrated in the Dhikala Chaur and Jalashay beats, underscoring the role of high-quality alluvial grasslands and perennial water. As a rapid count without detection correction, findings represent indices rather than true population estimates. Results highlight the need for grassland management, invasive species control, and habitat connectivity to ensure long-term conservation of hog deer in CTR.

On the evening of 5th April 2023, a team of wildlife photographers and researchers witnessed an event of Asian water monitor Varanus salvator, (Laurenti, 1768) praying on a hog deer (Axis porcinus) fawn which has never been reported earlier. Monitor lizards is a predator with wide range of food guild including fishes, crabs, turtles amphibians, reptiles, fishes, birds and small mammals. Incidence of praying on a hog deer fawn is an important observation and worth documentation.

Hog Deer (Axis porcinus), the rarest of Sri Lanka’s four deer species, is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) in the 2012 National Red List of Sri Lanka. Despite its status, the species has been studied very little within the country. This study, therefore, seeks to evaluate the current conservation status of the Hog Deer in the Galle District. The research was conducted over the course of one year, from December 1st, 2021 to December 1st, 2022. A total of 246 randomly selected participants from seven divisional secretariats in the Galle District were surveyed using a questionnaire. Recent observations recorded 306 adult Hog Deer and 22 fawns. Over a span of one and a half years, 27 injured and disabled Hog Deer were brought to the Hiyare Biodiversity Education and Research Center. They are restricted to human-modified landscapes, which they utilize on a seasonal basis. The survey documented 175 confirmed Hog Deer locations. Their habitat is limited to a small region in the Galle District, between the Bentota and Gin rivers. Hog Deer is known to cause damage to three crop types: Cinnamomum verum, Oryza sativa, and various vegetables, with Cinnamomum verum being the most frequently damaged plant. However, both the questionnaire survey and crop damage assessments indicated that the damage to cinnamon was minimal. The Hog Deer face significant threats within their range in the Galle District. Therefore, community-based conservation programs, along with institutional involvement, are essential for ensuring the survival of this charismatic species in its last remaining stronghold.

Wildlife animals have integral significance in ecological and economic stability. They are becoming extinct. One of the key roots of endangerment is tick-borne diseases. Anaplasma, Babesia, and Theileria are major parasites transmitted by obligatory hematophagous arthropods known as ticks to wildlife, livestock, and humans. In the current study, the creation of novel primers and optimization of a multiplex PCR assay to detect hemoparasites were done. Blood samples were collected from a total of 60 captive Gazella bennettii, family Bovidae, and Axis porcinus, family Cervidae, from different wildlife parks and zoos in Punjab, Pakistan. Both families were targeted during sampling to increase the sample count and obtain a variety of ungulates. Microscopy was performed using the Giemsa staining method, and 40 samples tested positive, which were then proceeded with PCR. Total genomic DNA was extracted for molecular detection by PCR. This study comprised three sets of newly designed primers based on genus to optimize multiplex PCR for melting temperature and crosslinking among primers. The results of our multiplex PCR assay were completely consistent with monoplex PCR using newly designed primers. Results of multiplex PCR revealed the presence of total hemoparasitic species infection in 65% of samples, whereas individual infections of Anaplasma, Babesia, and Theileria were recorded as 25%, 0%, and 40%, respectively. PCR provided accurate results supported by sequencing. This multiplex PCR assay provides a valuable complementary tool in routine, simultaneous, early, and accurate detection of Anaplasma, Babesia, and Theileria genera that helps control antibiotic resistance and save endangered species. Wildlife animals have integral significance in ecological and economic stability. They are becoming extinct. One of the key roots of endangerment is tick-borne diseases. Anaplasma, Babesia, and Theileria are major parasites transmitted by obligatory hematophagous arthropods known as ticks to wildlife, livestock, and humans. In the current study, the creation of novel primers and optimization of a multiplex PCR assay to detect hemoparasites were done. Blood samples were collected from a total of 60 captive Gazella bennettii, family Bovidae, and Axis porcinus, family Cervidae, from different wildlife parks and zoos in Punjab, Pakistan. Both families were targeted during sampling to increase the sample count and obtain a variety of ungulates. Microscopy was performed using the Giemsa staining method, and 40 samples tested positive, which were then proceeded with PCR. Total genomic DNA was extracted for molecular detection by PCR. This study comprised three sets of newly designed primers based on genus to optimize multiplex PCR for melting temperature and crosslinking among primers. The results of our multiplex PCR assay were completely consistent with monoplex PCR using newly designed primers. Results of multiplex PCR revealed the presence of total hemoparasitic species infection in 65% of samples, whereas individual infections of Anaplasma, Babesia, and Theileria were recorded as 25%, 0%, and 40%, respectively. PCR provided accurate results supported by sequencing. This multiplex PCR assay provides a valuable complementary tool in routine, simultaneous, early, and accurate detection of Anaplasma, Babesia, and Theileria genera that helps control antibiotic resistance and save endangered species.

Background/Objectives: The hog deer (Axis porcinus) is an endangered species facing significant threats from habitat loss and fragmentation, with only captive populations remaining in China. Expanding breeding programs and restoring wild populations are critical strategies for the species' conservation. Achieving this requires the development of an effective health database and the identification of molecular biomarkers for their physiological traits. Methods: In this study, we present the largest blood metabolomics dataset to date for captive hog deer, comprising 73 healthy individuals. We conducted targeted metabolomics to quantify blood hormone levels and untargeted metabolomics to characterize blood metabolic profiles, aiming to evaluate the associations of sex, age, and weight with metabolic profiles. Results: Our results reveal distinct growth patterns between females and males, with males reaching their body weight plateau at a larger size. We observed significant sex differences (p < 0.05) in blood hormones and metabolic profiles. Females exhibited higher levels of progesterone, hydroxyprogesterone, stress hormones (e.g., cortisol), and proline, while males had higher levels of testosterone, uric acid, phenylalanine, and guanidinosuccinic acid. Notably, body weight emerged as a more important factor than gender in explaining variations in the metabolome, particularly in males. Several blood biomarkers were identified as correlating with age and body weight. Specifically, blood progesterone levels in females were linked to both age and body weight, while in males, uric acid, prolylhydroxyproline, and 3-methylhistidine were associated with these factors. The potential significance of these results for the artificial breeding and conservation of hog deer were discussed. Conclusions: Our study provides a metabolic reference for identifying abnormal individuals and offers potential biomarkers for determining the gender, age, and body weight of hog deer. These findings may have significant implications for the artificial breeding and conservation efforts of the species.

The 'landscape of fear' concept offers valuable insights into wildlife behaviour, yet its practical integration into habitat management for conservation remains underexplored. In this study, conducted in the subtropical monsoon grasslands of Bardia National Park, Nepal, we aimed to bridge this gap through a multi-year, landscape-scale experimental investigation in Bardia National Park, Nepal. The park has the highest density of tigers (with an estimated density of ~7 individuals per 100 km2) in Nepal, allowing us to understand the effect of habitat management on predation risk and resource availability especially for three cervid species: chital (Axis axis), swamp deer (Rucervus duvaucelii) and hog deer (Axis porcinus). We used plots with varying mowing frequency (0-4 times per year), size (ranging from small: 49 m2 to large: 3600 m2) and artificial fertilisation type (none, phosphorus, nitrogen) to assess the trade-offs between probable predation risk and resources for these cervid species, which constitute primary prey for tigers in Nepal. Our results showed distinct responses of these deer to perceived predation risk within grassland habitats. Notably, these deer exhibited heightened use of larger plots, indicative of a perceived sense of safety, as evidenced by the higher occurrence of pellet groups in the larger plots (mean = 0.1 pellet groups m-2 in 3600 m2 plots vs. 0.07 in 400 m2 and 0.05 in 49 m2 plots). Furthermore, the level of use by the deer was significantly higher in larger plots that received mowing and fertilisation treatments compared to smaller plots subjected to similar treatments. Of particular interest is the observation that chital and swamp deer exhibited greater utilisation of the centre (core) areas within the larger plots (mean = 0.21 pellet groups m-2 at the centre vs. 0.13 at the edge) despite the edge (periphery) also provided attractive resources to these deer. In contrast, hog deer did not display any discernible reaction to the experimental treatments, suggesting potential species-specific variations in response to perceived predation risk arising from management interventions. Our findings emphasise the importance of a sense of security as a primary determinant of habitat selection for medium-sized deer within managed grassland environments. These insights carry practical implications for park managers, providing a nuanced understanding of integrating the 'landscape of fear' into habitat management strategies. This study emphasises that the 'landscape of fear' conceptcan and should be integrated into habitat management to maintain delicate predator-prey dynamics within ecosystems.

This study aimed to examine the current conservation status of the ‘Critically Endangered’ bird species Houbaropsis bengalensis (Gmelin, 1789), commonly known as the Bengal Florican or Bustard, in Manas National Park in Assam. The grasslands of this park, once home to the largest population of Bengal Floricans in India, are undergoing natural and anthropogenic changes. Field surveys conducted from February to April 2021 to assess florican populations recorded 50 males and 17 females, while a 2009 survey estimated 24 males in Manas NP (Brahma et al. 2009), indicating long-term population increase. Land use and land cover change maps of florican habitats were created using supervised classification. Grassland habitats face several threats, including uncontrolled natural succession coupled with livestock grazing, growth of invasive alien plants and collection of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) by local people. These disturbances reflect the condition of grasslands that are home to a wide variety of wildlife, including grassland specialists like Pygmy Hog Porcula salvania, Hispid Hare Caprolagus hispidus, Hog Deer Axis porcinus, and mega herbivores like Indian Rhino Rhinoceros unicornis, wild Water Buffalo Bubalus arnee, Eastern Swamp Deer Rucervus duvaucelii ranjitsinhi, Gaur Bos gaurus, and Asian Elephant Elephas maximus. These findings indicate an urgent need to protect and restore grasslands for conservation of the Bengal Florican and other grassland-dependent species.

Unveiling the mysteries of Asian herbivores resource partitioning in tropical wet-grassland ecosystem

Abstract Fruiting trees provide important fruit and seed resources for various animal species, but rarely are they considered to be rich sources of insects as well. During a study of seed dispersal of Trewia nudiflora (Euphorbiaceae) using camera traps in Nepal, we observed four tropical deer species (Axis axis, Muntiacus vaginalis, Rusa unicolor, Axis porcinus) foraging for insects, rather than fruits under the trees. These herbivorous deer are proven seed dispersers of Trewia, but 8%–38% of video captures (across each species) were of insectivory, rather than frugivory. The deer chased and consumed red cotton bugs (Dysdercus sp. family Pyrrhocoridae), which were seed predators that hoarded Trewia seeds. It is likely that other unidentified insect species were also consumed. Tropical deer species are considered to be fully herbivorous, so our observations extend their known diets and possibly indicate a seasonal requirement for protein. These findings also highlight tri‐trophic interactions among deer, insects, and fruits that could have important implications for seedling recruitment if seed predators are being consumed by seed dispersers (in addition to fruit consumption).

Wild animals usually suffer from a wide range of infectious agents of which parasites are an important concern for causing diseases in these animals. A study on the occurrence of Ecto and endo parasites was undertaken on a hog deer (Axis porcinus) from Kaziranga National Park, Assam that had died due to certain complications. Samples were collected during post mortem of the animal and sent to the Department of Veterinary Parasitology, College of Veterinary Science, Khanapara, Guwahati for identification. After performing detailed examination, the parasites were identified as Lipoptena cervi (Deer ked) and ticks, Haemaphysalis bispinosa amongst the ectoparasites and Carmyerius gregarius and Gastrothylax crumenifer amongst the endoparasites. A total of 7 nos. L. cervi were recovered which were wingless, yellowish brown in colour, 3-5 mm in length with three pairs of legs and having strong claws. A total of 7 nos. of H. bispinosa ticks were recovered from the ears of the deer which had no eyes, rectangular basis capituli, with the presence of a medium projection at the base of third palpal segment, presence of festoons, anal groove posterior to anus and ovoid spiracles. Adult flukes recovered from the rumen and reticulum and were confirmed to be C. gregarius and G. crumenifer. Both the parasites were cylindrical. C. gregarius (11.5-15 mm x 2.6-4.2 mm) had anteriorly blunt pointed end with truncated posterior end while G. crumenifer (14-18 mm x 4-5.5 mm) was curved ventrally and banana shaped. The parasites were identified by following the keys of Sen and Fletcher (1969) and Soulsby (1982).

Hog deer Axis porcinus reclaiming historical geographical distribution range due to ecological restoration in the Yamuna Biodiversity Park,

Sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) is a protective animal in Thailand. Sambar deer meat has become popular among consumer. Therefore, the smuggling of sambar deer has increased. For the success of prosecution, species identification of meat origin is necessary. An easy-to-perform screening assay for species identification of sambar deer meat is described in this study. The detection of three species of cervids including sambar deer, sika deer (Cervus nippon) and rusa deer (Cervus timorensi) was achieved by using newly designed primers targeting sambar deer cytochrome b (Cyt b) region producing an amplicon of approximately 350 base pairs (bp). The possibility of cross-amplification was prevented by testing with other species of cervids including eld’s deer (Cervus eldi), muntjac (Muntiacus spp.), chital deer (Cervus axis), hog deer (Axis porcinus) and popular consumed meats (pork, beef, chicken, seabass). The limit of detection (LOD) on sambar deer DNA was 31.25 pg. Sensitivity of detection of possible sambar deer in mixed meat species was 2%. Suitability of the screening assay was confirmed on processed meats like frozen meats (-20 oC, -80 oC) and cooked meats including boiled, steamed, autoclaved, fried, microwave cooked and grilled. Hence, this screening assay can effectively be used for preliminary examination of sambar deer origin in questioned evidence.

Pleistocene Lang Trang Fauna in North Vietnam: Taxonomic Composition and HABITATSNew data on the taxonomic composition and ecological characteristics of Late Pleistocene vertebrates and invertebrates from the Lang Trang cave in northern Vietnam are presented. Based on the materials collected in progress of the work of the Joint Vietnam - Russia Tropical Science and Technology Research Center in 2020-2022, various representatives of the Stegodon-Ailuropoda Fauna of the second half of the Middle - early Late Pleistocene of Southeast Asia were identified, including primates Gigantopithecus blacki, Pongo sp., Trachypithecus sp., Presbytis sp., Macaca nemestrina, M. cf. fascicularis, M. cf. mulatta, and Macaca sp., carnivorans Panthera tigris, Neofelis nebulosa, and Arctonyx collaris rostratus, a lipotyphlan Chodsigoa hoffmanni, a bat Ia io, rodents Hystrix kiangsenensis, Leopoldamys neilli, and Rattus rattus, proboscideans Stegodon sp. and Elephas maximus, perissodactyls Tapirus indicus, Dicerorhinus sumatrensis, Rhinoceros sondaicus, and Rh. unicornis, artiodactyls Sus scrofa, S. barbatus, Tragulus kanchil, Hydropotes inermis, Muntiacus muntjak, Axis porcinus, Rusa unicolor, Capricornis sumatraensis, Bubalus arnee, and Bos sp., a crocodile Crocodylus sp., a turtle Cuora sp. and an abundant gastropod association, presented by six terrestrial forms, two freshwater species and a coastal-marine species Ellobium aurismidae. Gigantopithecus blacki, Macaca cf. fascicularis, M. cf. mulatta, Neofelis nebulosa, Chodsigoa hoffmanni, Ia io, Leopoldamys neilli, Rattus rattus, Rhinoceros unicornis, Sus barbatus, Tragulus kanchil, Hydropotes inermis, Axis porcinus, crocodiles, turtles, and most of gastropod species were identified for the first time in the Lang Trang Fauna based on these studies. Of particular interest is the finding of the giant ape G. blacki, one of the latest in the fossil record. The habitats of the fauna are characterized as mosaic biotopes with a predominance of wet stations and the participation of mangrove swamps and coastal lowlands; these conditions could have existed in the area of the cave during a major marine transgression of the early Late Pleistocene.

Invasive species have established populations around the world and, in the process, characteristics of their realized environmental niches have changed. Because of their popularity as a source of game, deer have been introduced to, and become invasive in, many different environments around the world. As such, deer should provide a good model system in which to test environmental niche shifts. Using the current distributions of the six deer species present in Australia, we quantified shifts in their environmental niches that occurred since introduction; we determined the differences in suitable habitat between their international (native and invaded) and their Australian ranges. Given knowledge of their Australian habitat use, we then modeled the present distribution of deer in Australia to assess habitat suitability, in an attempt to predict future deer distributions. We show that the Australian niches of hog (Axis porcinus), fallow (Dama dama), red (Cervus elaphus), rusa (C. timorensis), and sambar deer (C. unicolor), but not chital deer (A. axis), were different to their international ranges. When we quantified the potential range of these six species in Australia, chital, hog, and rusa deer had the largest areas of suitable habitat outside their presently occupied habitat. The other three species had already expanded outside the ranges that we predicted as suitable. Here, we demonstrate that deer have undergone significant environmental niche shifts following introduction into Australia, and these shifts are important for predicting the future spread of these invasive species. It is important to note that current Australian and international environmental niches did not necessarily predict range expansions, thus wildlife managers should treat these analyses as conservative estimates.

Context A wild population of non-native hog deer has established in the Gippsland region of Victoria, Australia, and there is particular concern about its impact on native vegetation in Wilsons Promontory National Park (WPNP). Since 2015, there has been annual culling of hog deer at WPNP to reduce deer abundances and impacts. Aims The aims of this study were to use a kinship approach based on genotyping to assess contemporary dispersal of hog deer across WPNP, by identifying close kin, to determine whether dispersal of deer into culled sites from unculled sites may affect the long-term success of management there. Differences in the dispersal of male and female hog deer were also investigated. Methods In total, 91 hog deer tissue samples were collected across WPNP and surrounding sites. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers were sequenced, and a final dataset comprising 8275 SNPs was used for analysis. First-order, second-order, and intermediate relative pairs were identified, and the geographic distance between these pairs was assessed to determine inter-pair distances to infer dispersal. Spatial autocorrelation between male and female samples was evaluated to measure the effects of sex-biased dispersal. Key results Only seven second-order relative pairs were found across different sites, with a 30 km distance between the furthest pair observed. However, most inter-pair distances across sites were ~5–10 km. Analyses of sex-biased dispersal showed that movement by deer was not strongly influenced by one sex. Conclusions Although hog deer in WPNP are genetically similar, most relatives that were sampled were not widely dispersed. This suggests that there is limited dispersal of hog deer across this park. Implications Recolonisation of hog deer at culled sites via dispersal is likely to be infrequent in WPNP. Kinship analysis provides an effective method of assessing contemporary dispersal and could be applied to other species to assess fine-scale movement across landscapes.