Avogadro Constant Research Articles

The lessons from DynHom Research Project

Initiated in 2014, the DynHom (Dynamisation & Homeopathy) project was set up to answer the question: “How are highly dynamized dilutions prepared according to the homeopathic European Pharmacopoeia work?”. This vast program was carried out in collaboration with French and Belgian university teams. Based on the work of Prof. JL Demangeat, already published in nuclear magnetic resonance [1], we confirmed, like other teams around the word, that homeopathic preparations are not simply water but structured solutions, even for dilutions beyond the Avogadro number [2]. This major observation raises a new question: how and by what are these homeopathic solutions? After 8 years of measurements on multiple series of preparations (dynamized products, simply diluted products, and dynamized solvents as controls) using sophisticated laser microscopy (Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis, NTA), the answer is clear: the presence of nanoparticles in all homeopathic preparations is definitively established (3). Homeopathic potentization cannot be considered as simple dilutions. The molecular composition of these preparations was studied in parallel after lyophilization using electron microscopy and infrared spectrometry (SEM-EDX-FTIR). A specific proportion of carbonates and silicates is observed. Sodium bicarbonate is the main component. This remains true throughout manufacturing, even for the highest potentization [4]. In parallel, systematic measurements of the pH were performed on all these serial preparations after pooling manufacturing lines. As before, we conclude that pH profiles are specific for each product. Once again, this is just as evident in high dilutions. The particulate composition seems able to stabilize specific electric fields for each homeopathic medicine (in the publication process). Another key question is whether the specific characteristics of liquid homeopathic medicines can still be detected after impregnation with globules, granules, or powders. To find out, we need to use an innovative approach, electro-photonic analysis (EPA). A high-voltage current (12,000 volts) applied to the granules excites the electrons, which, when the stimulation stops, return to their initial resting state, emitting light. An imprint of the solution impregnated into the granule remains in the form of a specific light spectrum (future publication). These years of research into the pharmacognosy of homeopathic medicines have therefore been useful, but we still have a long way to go to arrive at a pharmacological explanation of our medicines.

Characterisation of Aqueous Ultra-high Homeopathic Potencies: Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis.

Over the past decade, research using various methods has claimed the material nature, including nanoparticles (NPs), of high homeopathic potencies. The current study aims to verify these findings using NP tracking analysis (NTA). Six independent serial dilutions of commonly used homeopathic medicines-either soluble (Gelsemium, Pyrogenium, Kalium mur) or insoluble (Cuprum, Argentum, Silicea)-were prepared according to European Pharmacopoeia standards. We compared the homeopathic dynamisations (DYNs) in pure water with their potentised controls and with simple dilutions (DIL) up to 30cH/10-60. We also tested the influence of the container (glass or PET) on the solvent controls. We observed the presence of particles from 20 to 300-400 nm in all DYNs, DILs and controls, except in pure unstirred water. The sizes and size distributions of NPs in high homeopathic potencies were smaller than those in controls for soluble sources and larger for insoluble sources, even above 11cH. The opposite behaviour was observed in the number of NPs. When comparing DYN and DIL, the number, size, presence of aggregates or chains and brightness of NPs increased with DYNs, which was also observed above 11cH. Many NPs scattered light of low intensity, indicating the presence of material particles. The container had a significant effect on the number and size of NPs, indicating the involvement of the atmosphere and leaching processes. Homeopathic medicines contain NPs with specific properties, even when diluted beyond Avogadro's number. Homeopathic potentisation is not a simple dilution. The starting material, the solvent used, the type of container and the manufacturing method influence the characteristics of these NPs. The nature of these NPs is not known, but most likely they are a mixture of nanobubbles and elements from the atmosphere and container, including insoluble ones.

Avogadro and Planck Constants, Two Pillars of the International System of Units

The International System of Units (SI), the current form of the metric system and the world’s most used system of units, has been continuously updated and refined since the Metre Convention of 1875 to ensure that it remains up to date with the latest scientific and technological advances. The General Conference on Weights and Measures, at its 26th meeting in 2018, decided to adopt stipulated values of seven physical constants linked to seven measurement units (the second, meter, kilogram, ampere, kelvin, mole, and candela). This paper reviews the technologies developed, in intense and long-standing work, to determine the Avogadro and Planck constants, which are now integral to realising the kilogram.

Effective Hamiltonian approach to kinetic Ising models: Application to an infinitely long-range Husimi-Temperley model.

The probability distribution (PD) of spin configurations in kinetic Ising models has been cast in the form of the canonical Boltzmann PD with a time-dependent effective Hamiltonian (EH). It has been argued that in systems with extensive energy EH depends linearly on the number of spins N leading to the exponential dependence of PD on the system size. In macroscopic systems the argument of the exponential function may reach values of the order of the Avogadro number which is impossible to deal with computationally, thus making unusable the linear master equation (ME) governing the PD evolution. To overcome the difficulty, it has been suggested to use instead the nonlinear ME (NLME) for the EH density per spin. It has been shown that in spatially homogeneous systems NLME contains only terms of order unity even in the thermodynamic limit. The approach has been illustrated with the kinetic Husimi-Temperley model (HTM) evolving under the Glauber dynamics. At finite N the known numerical results has been reproduced and extended to broader parameter ranges. In the thermodynamic limit an exact nonlinear partial differential equationof the Hamilton-Jacobi type for EH has been derived. It has been shown that the average magnetization in HTM evolves according to the conventional kinetic mean field equation.

Decoding Homoeopathy: Nanoparticle Evidence and its Therapeutic Implications

Potentization subsists as a pharmacological procedure, interior to solid whacks which cast-off progressively insipid a drug. Potentization persist as a structure used by homoeopathy, which turned of practicing for 200 years, to sort its medications. The unique measureable is transformed to nanoparticles throughout the process, which might be transferal the "encrypted information" of innovative substantial and devour the organic consequence. Even at high dilutions greater than Avogadro's number, homoeopathic medications contain nanoparticles, according to recent research that used by advanced microscopy and spectroscopy. This research challenges accepted the wisdom of potency and the medicinal drugs. The National Nanotechnology Initiative claims the biological activity can be observed in nanoparticles as miniature of esoteric slew nanometres. The perception of homoeopathic remedies could be regarded as Nano medicines aligns with this endeavour. These nanoparticles have anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and enhanced bioavailability characteristics. They possess the ability to influence immunological and cellular reactions. Throughout the potentization process the drug's bioactivity increases as identical result of reduction in particle size. This supports the theory, by using the principles of quantum mechanics, even highly diluted treatments demonstrate biological efficacy. Research has partaken the homoeopathic medications preserve the architectures of nanoparticles that impact the biological systems. This conclusion imparts the credence to possibility of these remedies may function as Nano carriers, conveying therapeutic information to specific localities privileged as frame. Through the application of these results, homoeopathy is positioned as a sort of Nano pharmacology, therefore bridging the gap between homoeopathic philosophy and contemporary nanoscience.

EXTRACTION OF THE METHYLENE BLUE DYE FROM SOLUTIONS WITH SYCAMORE BIOMASS SAWDUST

The possibility of using the sawdust biomass of Platanus orientalis for the purification of model solutions from the dye "Methylene blue" (MG) was studied. Washed and dried sawdust fractions less than 1.0 mm were used. Adsorption studies were carried out under static conditions on model solutions. In experiments, the sorption capacity of the material under study was determined for native sawdust and modified with 3% H2SO4. It has been established that the sorption capacity of sawdust biomass is 0.26 mmol/g of MG for native biomass and 0.34 mmol/g for modified one. The specific surface of the sorption material, calculated through the Avogadro number, Na, and the cross-sectional area of the MG molecule, Q, was 0.28 m2/g for native biomass and 0.36 m2/g for the modified one. The efficiency of purification of the model solution from MG at the ratio of the mass of sawdust m to the initial concentration of the solution Сin (m/Cin) equal to 5 is 75% for the original sawdust and 86% for the modified ones; when the m/C ratio is changed to 8, the cleaning efficiency for native sawdust is 92%, and for modified sawdust it is 95%. Adsorption isotherms have been obtained, which, according to the IUPAC classification, characterize single-stage adsorption on microporous solid adsorbents. Mathematical processing of adsorption isotherms in the framework of the Langmuir, Freidlich, Dubinin-Radushkevich models showed that the adsorption process is most adequately described by the Freudlich model for both native (R2 = 0.9501) and modified (R2 = 0.9389) sawdust. The value of the Gibbs energy, ΔGo, kJ/mol·K, has a negative sign both for native (ΔGо = -7.237) and for modified ones (ΔGo = -19.568), which indicates a spontaneous flow of the process. Sorption capacity of sawdust biomass after treatment with acid increases from 0.26 to 0.34 mmol/g, i.e. by 30%.

Is There the Fourth Law of the Thermodynamics?

The Gibbs energy change ∆ G in half-reactions Me →Me n+ + ne and halogens 1/2Hal2 + e → Hal- were analyzed using cycles∆ G Me = ∆ G subl. + ∑ I - ∆ G hydr. - W e (1)∆ G Hal = ∆G dissoc. - E affinity - ∆ G hydr. + W e (2)including energies of metal sublimation +∆G subl. , ionization of metal vapor +∑I , chemical hydration of Me n+ ions -∆G hydr. , condensation of free electrons from vacuum onto electrode - W e ; dissociation of halogen molecules + ∆G dissoc. , acceptance of electrons from vacuum by halogens - E affinity, chemical hydration of Hal- anions -∆G hydr. , abstraction of electrons from electrode into vacuum + W e. [1,2].The Gibbs energy ∆G* Me and ∆G* Hal were calculated using known constants Eqns. (3, 4) [1]∆ G* Me = ∆ G subl. + ∑ I - ∆ G hydr. (3)∆ G* Hal = 1/2 ∆ G dissoc. - E affinity - ∆ G hydr. (4)The relations between ∆G*/ n by Eqns. (3), (4), n - number of electrons, for metals and halogens (electron bonds decrease in them) and corresponding standard potentials Eo are linear and extrapolated to Eo = - 4.72 V SHE at ∆G*/ n = 0 (Fig.1;lines 1, 2).Calculated ∆G*/ n = 4.95 eV (Cu)and ∆G* = -5.27 eV (I2 ) are close in value (Fig.1). According to Eqns. (1, 2), ∆G/ n in half-reactions of weak reductant Cu and oxidant I 2 should tend to zero (metals - non-metals transition).For this, calculated ∆G* = 4.95 eV (Cu)and ∆G* = -5.27 eV (I2 ) should be decreased and increased on W e ~ 5.1 - 5.2 eV respectively [1,2].The intermediate W e,interm. = 5.19 eV is determined to some substance (metals - non-metals transition) which electrons should be bound by non-specific (non-chemical) definite Coulomb bond [2, 3].The linear relations for metals (line 1) and halogen (line 2) are displaced in the parallel direction by -5.19 and 5.19 eV respectively (Fig.1) when account is taken W e,interm. = 5.19 eV, i.e., we obtained linear relations 1’ and 2’ between ∆G/ n of chemical half-reactions by Eqns. (1, 2) and their Eo . Relations 1’ and 2’ intersect with E o – axis at ∆G/ n = 0 at potential Eo = ~ + 0.47 V SHE close to Billiter potential + 0.475 V SHE corresponded by [1-3] to hypothetical electrode between metals and non-metals without own chemical activity or to chemical equilibrium half-reactions.According to Eqns. (3, 4), limiting separated electrons (vacuum) and ions without any bonding are formed from metals, non-metals with spending decreased ∆G*/ n (lines 1, 2, Fig.1). When ∆G*/ n = 0 ( Eo = - 4.72 V SHE), all components of Eqns. (3) and (4) are degenerated. For such a system ∆G* = - A max = 0, the entropy change is equal ∆ S = 0. Hence, the entropy S tends to constant and infinity S max → ∞.The Gibbs energy ∆G*/ n = 5.19 eV (Fig.1)of limiting separation of definite Coulomb bound electrons – ions (transfer + 0.475 V SHE → - 4.72 V SHE) per electron5.19 eV x 1.6021 x 10-19 J/eV = 8.314899 x 10-19 J (5)and the gas constant R = 8.31441 J/mol.K have equal bases.Then, R = 8.3144 J/mol. K is sufficient for limiting separation per 1 K of 1019 such non-chemically bound electrons - ions ( W e,interm. = 5.19 eV; Eo = + 0.475 V SHE, Fig.1). These electrons - ions should be analogous to non - chemically interacting particles of ideal gas at STP conditions.The energy R Δ T is equal to the energy 5.19 eV = 500703.548 J/mol of limiting separation of definite Coulomb bound electrons – ions at the change of temperature Δ T Δ T = 5.19 eV / 8.3144 J/mol K = 500703.548 J/mol / 8.3144 J/mol K = = 60221.25 K (6)which the base corresponds to Avogadro number and mole of limiting separated electrons – ions is equal to6.022 . 104 K x 1019 mol-1 K-1 = 6.022.1023 mol-1 (7)Hence, the origin of Avogadro number is number of electrons - ions condensing from limiting separated state (without bonding) to their state with non-chemical definite Coulomb bonds (analogous ideal gas).The 4th thermodynamics law: limiting separated state of electrons - ions with entropy S max →∞ occurs with increasing temperature on Δ T = 6.022 . 104 K from STP, at 6.022. 104 oC. The released heat leads only to increase in kinetic energy and temperature of limiting separated electrons - ions.Reference1.A.I.Chernomorskii, Zh. Fiz. Khim., 52, 757 (1978).2.A.I.Chernomorkii, The Intermediate Electron Bond and Half-reactions (Scientific Resources, New Yopk, NY) (1999).3.A.I.Chernomorkii, Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 2021,168, 116514. Figure 1

Experimental teaching of the Avogadro constant

Although Avogadro’s number is a fundamental concept in chemistry, it is often overlooked in secondary education textbooks in Greece. Students are taught about mol, the number Avogadro, the molar volumes, and the equation of the state of gases. However, in no case is a detailed examination held about the importance of this number and the connection of macroscopic and microscopic quantities through the Avogardo constant. Also, the references related to the topic fail to raise students’ awareness of the atomic and molecular structure and the procedure with which the matter becomes quantic. Furthermore, the experimental approach is non-existent. To address these shortcomings, this project proposes a new and straightforward experimental method for students to determine the value of Avogadro’s number. The carefully designed experimental procedure can be completed within one teaching hour, encouraging active student participation. More importantly, the proposed experimental setup does not require sophisticated instruments and poses no risks, making it feasible for students to conduct it themselves.

SHOULD EPONYMS BE KEPT? EMPHATIC YES

Conducting research in science education, the authors of the Journal of Baltic Science Education surely remember eponyms in school subjects and university courses. Eponym is a term that includes the name of the person, who discovered a species (biology), explored a glacier (geography), synthesized a compound (chemistry), formulated a law (physics), invented a device (engineering), proved a theorem (mathematics), treated or suffered a disease (medicine), etc. Most chemists and chemistry teachers know, e.g., such eponyms as Avogadro number, Wurtz reaction, Mendeleev table, Liebig condenser, Claisen adapter, Berthollet salt, asf. Eponyms are a relatively new domain of scientific terminology: they first appeared in the 19th century, when the development of science and technology grew rapidly, and scientists decided to honor brilliant colleagues, attaching their names to the discoveries they made. Before this, scientists used words from national and Latin languages to name discovered phenomena.

Rigid rod particle like viscoelastic responses of poly(vinylidene fluoride) in N-methylpyrrolidone solution

A systematic study was performed on the dynamic viscoelastic properties of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) solutions of poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) samples with a wide range of weight average molar masses (Mw) from 140 to 3300 kg mol−1 over a temperature range of −24 to 35 °C in the dilute to semidilute concentration (c) regime in this study. In previous studies under extremely dilute conditions, it was confirmed that PVDF molecules behave as isolated highly elongated rigid rods, and the average particle length (⟨L⟩) and diameter (⟨d⟩) for different PVDF samples were precisely determined. The fundamental viscoelastic parameters used to analyze the dynamics of PVDF molecules dissolved in NMP were precisely determined, including the zero-shear shear viscosity (η0), the steady state compliance (Je), the average relaxation time (τw), and the activation energy (E*v) of τw in this study. E*v increased stepwise above c values corresponding to the reciprocal of the intrinsic viscosity ([η]−1) for different solutions, independent of Mw, showing that contact or the formation of entanglements between PVDF molecules causes the increase in E*v. Je−1 was found to be proportional to the number density of PVDF molecules (ν = cNAMw−1, where NA denotes the Avogadro constant) over the entire investigated v range, irrespective of Mw and the presence of entanglements between PVDF molecules. The reduced specific viscosities, ηspNA⟨L⟩3(Mw[η])−1, were reasonably described as a universal function in the parameter ν⟨L⟩3 over the entire investigated range, and ηspNA⟨L⟩3(Mw[η])−1 ∝ (ν⟨L⟩3)3 was found over the region 102 < ν⟨L⟩3 < 103, irrespective of Mw.

Topological origin of the protein folding transition.

In this paper, a geometrical and thermodynamical analysis of the global properties of the potential energy landscape of a minimalistic model of a polypeptide is presented. The global geometry of the potential energy landscape is supposed to contain relevant information about the properties of a given sequence of amino acids, that is, to discriminate between a random heteropolymer and a protein. By considering the SH3 and PYP protein-sequences and their randomized versions it turns out that, in addition to the standard signatures of the folding transition-discriminating between protein sequences of amino acids and random heteropolymer sequences-also peculiar geometric signatures of the equipotential hypersurfaces in configuration space can discriminate between proteins and random heteropolymers. Interestingly, these geometric signatures are the "shadows" of deeper topological changes that take place in correspondence with the protein folding transition. The protein folding transition takes place in systems with a small number of degrees of freedom (very far from the Avogadro number) and in the absence of a symmetry-breaking phenomenon. Nevertheless, seen from the deepest level of topology changes of equipotential submanifolds of phase space, the protein folding transition fully qualifies as a phase transition.

Qualitative and quantitative analysis of phytochemicals in ficus religiosa

:Abstract: Ficus commonly known as "Peepal tree" is a large tree found throughout India. It is a sacred tree which is having traditional uses as well as pharmacological activities.Materials and Methods: Ficus religiosa Q, 6C, 12C, 30C, 200C, 1000C potencies are taken tested with different reagents to find out the presence of different phytochemicals in it.Results: Potencies beyond avagadro limit also has shown presence of phytochemicalsConclusion: Homoeopathic doses of medicines are too dilute i.e., beyond Avogadro limit medicines, therefore often receive criticism on their activity as having placebo effect. The present study lays emphasis on presence of phytochemicals even they are diluted beyond Avogadro number.

Dynamization-induced nanosolutes (DINS) in ultra-dilute solutions. Analysis on homeopathic dilute capsules below and over the Avogadro's number

article: Dynamization-induced nanosolutes (DINS) in ultra-dilute solutions. Analysis on homeopathic dilute capsules below and over the Avogadro’s number - Gazzetta Medica Italiana - Archivio per le Scienze Mediche 2022 April;181(4):271-7 - Minerva Medica - Journals

An original relationship between space, time, gravity, and mass established by dimensional analysis

Abstract This article aims to present a completely original take on the relationship between space, time, gravity, and mass, determined through dimensional analysis, based on an original method proposed by the author and previously published in several other articles and books. Through these results, the author aims to demonstrate that space curves in relation to time and this curvature is directly related to gravity and mass, while also highlighting how an elementary physical entity could be generated by gravity within the space‐time relationship. This elementary physical entity is also in a direct relation with the Avogadro number.

Odd thermodynamic limit for the Loschmidt echo

Is it possible to readily distinguish a system made by an Avogadro's number of identical elements and one with a single additional one? Usually, the answer to this question is negative but, in this work, we show that in antiferromagnetic quantum spin rings a simple out-of-equilibrium experiment can do so, yielding two qualitatively and quantitatively different outcomes depending on whether the system includes an even or an odd number of elements. We consider a local quantum-quench setup and calculate a generating function of the work done, namely, the Loschmidt echo, showing that it displays different features depending on the presence or absence of topological frustration, which is triggered by the even/oddness in the number of the chain sites. We employ the prototypical quantum Ising chain to illustrate this phenomenology, which we argue being generic for antiferromagnetic spin chains, as it stems primarily from the different low energy spectra of frustrated and non frustrated chains. Our results thus prove that these well-known spectral differences lead indeed to distinct observable characteristics and open the way to harvest them in quantum thermodynamics protocols.

Insights into molecular interactions gleaned from a lattice-based Helmholtz equation of state

A bulk phase thermodynamic potential is used to account for molecular interaction energy. It is derived from the partition function and is equal to the internal energy minus the product of temperature multiplied by thermal entropy. Bulk interaction energy is a function of volume, temperature, and quantity. Thermal entropy is the negative derivative of bulk interaction energy with respect to temperature at constant volume. A Helmholtz equation of state for pure fluids, with models of bulk interaction energy and configurational entropy, is proposed and used to correlate PρT data generated by REFPROP equations for hydrogen, parahydrogen, deuterium, helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and nitrogen. The difference between the proposed equation of state and REFPROP density values are on average within the reported uncertainty in REFPROP over the REFPROP range of applicability. The equation of state satisfies the ideal curves assessment indicating reasonable extrapolation behavior beyond the range of applicability. Plots of implied interaction energy isotherms versus molecular separation distance (cube root of molar volume divided by Avogadro's number) all have the same characteristic features. The strongest attraction between molecules occurs at the triple point temperature for a liquid with a density approximately 5% larger than the triple point liquid density. The separation distance at the minimum potential energy is on average within 0.1 Ả of the average value derived from empirical Lennard-Jones potential. At separations closer than this attraction drop off sharply changing rapidly to repulsion. At a given separation along the coexistence line attraction is stronger than at any other temperature with the same separation. Interactions become strictly repulsive beyond some temperature in the critical region.

Exploring possible mechanism of homoeopathic potentization by nanoparticle: Exclusion zone shell model

Homoeopathy is a form of nanopharmacology. Potentization was the most significant, although controversial amongst Hahnemann's discoveries. Homeopathy is debatable because high-potency medications have large dilution factors that are several orders of magnitude more than Avogadro's number, implying that no measurable residues of the initial components should exist. Nature and bioactivity of serially diluted and succussed solutions used in homoeopathy could be explained using the Nanoparticle-Exclusion Zone Shell Model (EZ). During dilutions, nanoparticles adsorb the source drug, altering their structure and surround themselves with modified EZ shells. Both altered nanoparticles and their modified shells contain the source medication. During forceful strokes, modified EZ shells strip off and distribute as further modified EZ templates to nanoparticles and modifying their structures accordingly. As a result, source drug information develops beyond Avogadro's calculations when it moves from one dilution to the next. During trituration lactose plays very important role to promote intracellular transport as well as acts as stabilizer. New concepts are discussed in this paper, leading to a new hypothetical model for properly understanding the memory retention phenomenon and homoeopathic medicine. This paper aims to review EZ shell model hypothesis on the scientific basis of homoeopathic medicine and research opportunities.

Molar mass measurement of a 28Si-enriched silicon crystal with high precision secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS)

Several highly-enriched 28Si crystals were produced to enable a better determination of the Avogadro constant through removing the uncertainty associated with the abundance determination of the minor isotopes 29Si and 30Si.

Experimental evidence in support of the biological effects and physical basis of homeopathic potencies

Background: Homeopathic potencies 12 cH and above cross the Avogadro number and, for this, do not contain any original drug molecules. Two major problems involved in the scientific study of potencies are (1) understanding the physical basis of potencies and (2) demonstrating the biological effects of potencies. The present study aims to address these questions.
 Methods and Results: In course of our experimental studies spanned over more than 30 years we have demonstrated significant effects of homeopathic potencies on man, animals and plants. We have also showed that potencies could be differentiated through their electronic spectra, and this difference in spectra can be attributed to the electron transfer interaction. In a molecular complex, electron of one molecule absorbs a quantum of visible radiation and is excited, not to a higher energy level of this molecule, but to one of the vacant high energy levels of the neighboring molecules. This process is known as electron or charge transfer interaction. This has been demonstrated in Iodine ө in two different solvents of CCl4 and aqueous ethanol (Sukul N C, Environ Ecol 17,866-872, 1999). We have further demonstrated that the effect of a homeopathic potency can be transmitted from one part of a plant to another, and also from one plant to another through water. I am presenting here a few selected cases of our experimental studies. Potentized Nux vomica significantly reduced ethanol consumption in rats by 73.7%and ethanol-induced sleep time in albino mice by 44.4%. Causticum 30 C and Rhus tox 30 C produced anti-inflamatory and anti-nocicptive effect on adjuvant arthritis in albino rats. Potentized homeopathic drugs reduced microfilaraemia by 28 to 100% and filariasis in two villages of West Bengal endemic for Bancroftian filaiasis. Potentized Cina and Thuja ameliorated trichinellosis in mice reducing larval population in muscles by 84% and 68%, respectively.
 Potencies of Agaricus and Nux vomica, produced excitatory effect on the isolated rat ileum. Potentized drugs altered firing rate of hypothalamic neurons in rats and cats. Nux vom 30 c and Merc cor 30c facilitated water permeability in erythrocytes of catfish in a test tube. Potencies of Merc cor and Merc iod enhanced α-amylase activity in vitro ,by 44 and 21%,respectively.
 Drugs ,that inhibit photosynthesis and plant growth in high doses, promote the same phenomena when applied on plants at ultra low doses. Potentized Cantharis, a homeopathic drug used for burn injuries, counter the effect of heat shock in Adhatoda vasica plants in terms of modulating the expression of heat-shock proteins in the plants. The effect of heat shock and of Cantharis treatment could be transmitted from one plant to another through water. The global network of surface water in a closed system is thought to be responsible for producing this effect. Several potentized homeopathic drugs show distinct variation from each other in their absorption spectra in ultra violet region of light. These drugs when mixed with sucrose solution, also show marked differences from each other at temperatures as low as 4 0 C and as high as 70 0 C. Electron transfer interaction may contribute to the characteristic spectral properties of a homeopathic potency.
 Conclusions: Homeopathic potencies could be detected and differentiated by their electronic spectra. Potencies show marked effect on animals, plants, ex vivo effect on isolated organs and in vitro effect on enzymes.
 Keywords: Homeopathic potencies, electronic spectra, ethanol intake, adjuvant arthritis, filariasis, Cantharis, Nux vomica

Probing Allosteric Modulation of Membrane Receptor in the Native State by Data Mining-Integrated Tracking Microscopy

Probing Allosteric Modulation of Membrane Receptor in the Native State by Data Mining-Integrated Tracking Microscopy