Australian Sheep-Goat Scale Research Articles

The Australian Sheep-Goat Scale: An Evaluation of Factor Structure and Convergent Validity.

The Australian Sheep-Goat Scale (ASGS) is a commonly used measure of belief in the paranormal. The scale contains items that index extrasensory perception (ESP), psychokinesis (PK), and life after death (LAD). Although, research employs the ASGS as both a general (unidimensional) and factorial (multidimensional) measure, few studies have examined the appropriateness of these solutions. Accordingly, the present paper tested the psychometric integrity of the ASGS via two studies. Study 1 assessed ASGS factorial structure using confirmatory factor analysis. To achieve this, merging of ASGS data from previously published studies and ongoing work created a heterogeneous sample of 1,601 responses. Analysis revealed that a two-factor bifactor model best explained ASGS organization. This comprised a general overarching factor incorporating two subfactors (ESP and PK). Factor loadings and omega reliability supported a unidimensional structure for the most part. Removal of LAD items improved model fit because the factor added unnecessary complexity and undermined scale psychometric integrity. Study 2, using a supplementary composite sample of 320 respondents, assessed the convergent validity of the emergent ASGS model against a recently published Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS) bifactor solution. Comparison revealed high convergent validity. The general ASGS factor, despite deriving from only psi-related dimensions (ESP and PK) predicted RPBS scores. This finding indicated that ASGS brevity relative to the RPBS is advantageous when assessing general belief in the paranormal. The ASGS, notwithstanding limited construct content, functions as an effective measure of paranormal belief. Additionally, Study 2 replicated the bifactor structure identified in Study 1 and invariance testing supported invariance of form, factor loadings and item intercepts for this solution across Studies 1 and 2.

Correlates of the Multidimensional Construct of Hypnotizability: Paranormal Belief, Fantasy Proneness, Magical Ideation, and Dissociation

Hypnotizability is a multifaceted construct that may relate to multiple aspects of personality and beliefs. This study sought to address 4 known correlates of hypnotizability to aid in its understanding. Eighty undergraduates completed the Magical Ideation Scale (MIS), the Creative Experiences Questionnaire (CEQ), the Australian Sheep-Goat Scale (ASGS), and the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES) and then were administered the Creative Imagination Scale (CIS). All 5 scales were significantly correlated. Participants higher in hypnotizability scored higher on the CEQ and the MIS. The findings demonstrate the influence of fantasy proneness and magical thinking on hypnotizability and support the theory that hypnotizability is a complex interaction of multiple traits.

ADVERSE LIFE EVENTS IN HELP-SEEKING AND NON-HELP-SEEKING UHR INDIVIDUALS

The main purpose of this study was to further the understanding of schizotypy by investigating which of two schizotypy models best describes the construct. The quasi-dimensional model views schizotypy as related to psychological ill-health, whereas the fully dimensional model views schizotypy as fundamentally neutral. A schizotypy measure, the Oxford–Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences (O-LIFE; Mason, Claridge, & Jackson, 1995), a health-related measure, the Sense of Coherence (SOC; Antonovsky, 1991) Scale, and a measure of paranormal beliefs and experiences, the Australian Sheep–Goat Scale (ASGS; Thalbourne & Delin, 1993) were used. The study cluster analysed 88 undergraduate psychology students' responses on three of the O-LIFE dimensions: `unusual experiences' (UE), `cognitive disorganisation' (CD), and `introvertive anhedonia' (IA) (Mason et al., 1995). An agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis of the O-LIFE sub-scales suggested three separate clusters. These were labelled CD/IA, UE, and LS. One-way ANOVA:s revealed that the CD/IA cluster scored lower on the SOC scale than the other clusters and that the UE cluster scored higher than the LS cluster on the ASGS. The results of this study support the notion of healthy schizotypy and support the fully dimensional model of schizotypy over the quasi-dimensional model.

Poster #196 INTERPERSONAL APPRAISALS AND SUBJECTIVE STRESS PREDICT PSYCHOTIC SYMPTOMS IN DAILY LIFE

This study aimed to investigate which of a fully dimensional and a quasi-dimensional model for schizotypy would be supported in a population of 129 paranormal believers and experients. It also aimed to investigate which, if any, of the previous cluster structures (Goulding, 2004, Loughland and Williams, 1997) would be replicated. An agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis and a subsequent k-means cluster analysis of the Unusual Experiences (UE), Cognitive Disorganisation (CD), and Introvertive Anhedonia (IA) sub-scales of the Oxford–Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences (O-LIFE; Mason, Claridge, & Jackson, 1995) were performed. Three separate clusters, labelled Introvertive Anhedonia (IA), Low Schizotypy (LS), and Cognitive Disorganisation (CD), were identified. An analysis of variance showed that the clusters did not differ with regard to paranormal beliefs and experiences, measured by the Australian Sheep–Goat Scale (ASGS; Thalbourne & Delin, 1993); all clusters had high scores. Another analysis of variance showed that the LS cluster scored significantly higher on the health-related Sense of Coherence (SOC; Antonovsky, 1991) Scale than both the other clusters. The results of this study support the Loughland and Williams (1997) O-LIFE four-cluster solution and the notion of healthy schizotypy and therefore also the fully dimensional model of schizotypy.

Sensitivity to Coincidences and Paranormal Belief

Often it is difficult to find a natural explanation as to why a surprising coincidence occurs. In attempting to find one, people may be inclined to accept paranormal explanations. The objective of this study was to investigate whether people with a lower threshold for being surprised by coincidences have a greater propensity to become believers compared to those with a higher threshold. Participants were exposed to artificial coincidences, which were formally defined as less or more probable, and were asked to provide remarkability ratings. Paranormal belief was measured by the Australian Sheep-Goat Scale. An analysis of the remarkability ratings revealed a significant interaction effect between Sheep-Goat score and type of coincidence, suggesting that people with lower thresholds of surprise, when experiencing coincidences, harbor higher paranormal belief than those with a higher threshold. The theoretical aspects of these findings were discussed.

The “Haunt” project: An attempt to build a “haunted” room by manipulating complex electromagnetic fields and infrasound

Recent research has suggested that a number of environmental factors may be associated with a tendency for susceptible individuals to report mildly anomalous sensations typically associated with “haunted” locations, including a sense of presence, feeling dizzy, inexplicable smells, and so on. Factors that may be associated with such sensations include fluctuations in the electromagnetic field (EMF) and the presence of infrasound. A review of such work is presented, followed by the results of the “Haunt” project in which an attempt was made to construct an artificial “haunted” room by systematically varying such environmental factors. Participants ( N = 79) were required to spend 50 min in a specially constructed chamber, within which they were exposed to infrasound, complex EMFs, both or neither. They were informed in advance that during this period they might experience anomalous sensations and asked to record on a floor plan their location at the time of occurrence of any such sensations, along with a note of the time of occurrence and a brief description of the sensation. Upon completing the session in the experimental chamber, they were asked to complete three questionnaires. The first was an EXIT scale asking respondents to indicate whether or not they had experienced particular anomalous sensations. The second was the Australian Sheep–Goat Scale, a widely used measure of belief in and experience of the paranormal. The third was Persinger's Personal Philosophy Inventory, although only the items that constitute the Temporal Lobe Signs (TLS) Inventory sub-scale were scored. These items deal with psychological experiences typically associated with temporal lobe epilepsy but normally distributed throughout the general population. Although many participants reported anomalous sensations of various kinds, the number reported was unrelated to experimental condition but was related to TLS scores. The most parsimonious explanation for our findings is in terms of suggestibility.

The relationship between susceptibility to false memories, dissociativity, and paranormal belief and experience

One hundred participants completed a News Coverage Questionnaire concerning personal memories of where they were, what they were doing and who they were with when footage of dramatic news events was first shown on television, as well as asking them to recall details of the footage itself. These news items included four events that are known to have been captured on film and one item concerning non-existent footage of the bombing of a nightclub in Bali. Overall, 36% of respondents reported false memories of the alleged footage of the Bali bombing. Participants reporting false memories were found to score significantly higher than those who did not report such memories on the Australian Sheep–Goat Scale, on various subscales of the Anomalous Experiences Inventory (Belief, Experience and Ability) and on the Dissociative Experiences Scale, supporting the hypothesis that believers in the paranormal may be more susceptible to false memories than non-believers.

Healthy schizotypy in a population of paranormal believers and experients

This study aimed to investigate which of a fully dimensional and a quasi-dimensional model for schizotypy would be supported in a population of 129 paranormal believers and experients. It also aimed to investigate which, if any, of the previous cluster structures ( Goulding, 2004; Loughland & Williams, 1997) would be replicated. An agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis and a subsequent k-means cluster analysis of the Unusual Experiences (UE), Cognitive Disorganisation (CD), and Introvertive Anhedonia (IA) sub-scales of the Oxford–Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences (O-LIFE; Mason, Claridge, & Jackson, 1995) were performed. Three separate clusters, labelled Introvertive Anhedonia (IA), Low Schizotypy (LS), and Cognitive Disorganisation (CD), were identified. An analysis of variance showed that the clusters did not differ with regard to paranormal beliefs and experiences, measured by the Australian Sheep–Goat Scale (ASGS; Thalbourne & Delin, 1993); all clusters had high scores. Another analysis of variance showed that the LS cluster scored significantly higher on the health-related Sense of Coherence (SOC; Antonovsky, 1991) Scale than both the other clusters. The results of this study support the Loughland and Williams (1997) O-LIFE four-cluster solution and the notion of healthy schizotypy and therefore also the fully dimensional model of schizotypy.

Schizotypy models in relation to subjective health and paranormal beliefs and experiences

Abstract The main purpose of this study was to further the understanding of schizotypy by investigating which of two schizotypy models best describes the construct. The quasi-dimensional model views schizotypy as related to psychological ill-health, whereas the fully dimensional model views schizotypy as fundamentally neutral. A schizotypy measure, the Oxford–Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences (O-LIFE; Mason, Claridge, & Jackson, 1995 ), a health-related measure, the Sense of Coherence (SOC; Antonovsky, 1991 ) Scale, and a measure of paranormal beliefs and experiences, the Australian Sheep–Goat Scale (ASGS; Thalbourne & Delin, 1993 ) were used. The study cluster analysed 88 undergraduate psychology students' responses on three of the O-LIFE dimensions: `unusual experiences' (UE), `cognitive disorganisation' (CD), and `introvertive anhedonia' (IA) ( Mason et al., 1995 ). An agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis of the O-LIFE sub-scales suggested three separate clusters. These were labelled CD/IA, UE, and LS. One-way ANOVA:s revealed that the CD/IA cluster scored lower on the SOC scale than the other clusters and that the UE cluster scored higher than the LS cluster on the ASGS. The results of this study support the notion of healthy schizotypy and support the fully dimensional model of schizotypy over the quasi-dimensional model.

Narcissism and belief in the paranormal.

The present study was designed to assess whether the relationship between narcissistic personality and paranormal belief identified by Tobacyk and Mitchell earlier could be replicated with a general population and to see whether the effect could be found with a narrower definition of paranormal beliefs that focuses only on belief in psychic phenomena. 75 participants completed the Narcissistic Personality Inventory and two measures of paranormal belief, the Paranormal Belief Scale and the Australian Sheep-Goat Scale. There was no correlation between narcissism and Paranormal Belief Scale scores, but narcissism and Australian Sheep-Goat Scale scores were significantly positively correlated. Of the three subscales to the Australian Sheep-Goat measure, scores for narcissism correlated with belief in ESP and PK but not in Life after death. These relationships were interpreted in terms of need for control.

MEASURES OF THE SHEEP-GOAT VARIABLE, TRANSLIMINALITY, AND THEIR CORRELATES

In this study a battery of pencil-and-paper tests was given to 125 first-year psychology students (27% men). This battery included as measures of belief in the paranormal (the so-called “sheep-goat variable”) the Australian Sheep-Goat Scale, Tobacyk's Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (comprised of two scales—New Age Philosophy and Traditional Paranormal Beliefs), and the Anomalous Experience Inventory (comprised of five scales: Anomalous/Paranormal Experience, Belief, Ability, Fear, and Drug Use). Also included were the 29-item Transliminality Scale, a 35-item Kundalini Scale, an experimental 13-item Determinism/Free Will scale, and a number of single-question items aimed specifically at transliminality. The results were, first, that virtually all the measures of the sheep-goat variable were intercorrelated with each other (range, .34 to .77), thereby providing support for their convergent validity. Second, scores on the Kundalini Scale and Drug Use correlated significantly with scores on the sheep-goat variable, replicating previous findings. And, finally, many correlates of transliminality were found, again including scores on the Kundalini Scale and Drug Use (prescribed and illicit) as well as certain determinism-related beliefs. Beliefs, experiences, and behaviors associated with transliminality and the Kundalini experience may reflect a desire to escape a negative state of being.

Testing the McBeath hypothesis: relation of sexual orientation and belief in the paranormal.

According to McBeath, the incidence of homosexuality among experiments of paranormal phenomena exceeds that which would be expected by chance. Therefore, 50 homosexual men and 50 heterosexual men were administered the forced-choice version of the 18-item Australian Sheep-Goat Scale as a measure of belief in and alleged experience of the paranormal. As no differences were found in scores on belief/experience, there was no evidence for McBeath's hypothesis.

Paranormal belief, manic-depressiveness, and magical ideation: a replication

A previous study conducted in Australia has suggested that persons who believe in and claim experience of the paranormal tend to score higher on measures of manic-depressiveness and magical ideation. The present study sought to confirm these findings in an English sample of 114 university students using as measures of belief in the paranormal the Australian Sheep-Goat Scale and as well the Survey of Belief in Extraordinary Phenomena. As predicted, paranormal belief was significantly correlated with measures of manic-, depressive-, and manic-depressive experience, as well as magical ideation. It was noted, moreover, that manic-depressive experience was moderately correlated with magical ideation, suggesting some overlap between the relevant conditions.