Athletic Commission Research Articles

Pineal gland cyst-to fight or not to fight?

Since professional boxing is associated with substantial risk of both acute and chronic traumatic brain injury, many athletic (boxing) commissions in the United States and abroad request a neuroimaging study of the brain to determine brain fitness to fight. Either magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain or computed tomography (CT) head is needed to obtain a license to compete in professional combat sports and periodically thereafter. The neuroimaging study helps to identify and/or exclude structural brain lesions that may pose a risk of rupture or bleeding from head impact exposures (HIEs) sustained during the course of the bout. Identification of structural brain lesions such as large tumors, vascular malformations such as aneurysms, arteriovenous malformations, and large cavernous malformations results in a denial of licensure to fight. Pineal gland cysts (PC) are usually benign cysts discovered on occasions incidentally in MRI scans of boxers. A 25-year-old asymptomatic boxer was found to have a 2 cm PC with intracystic hemorrhage on MRI scan done for licensure. The medical literature was reviewed to determine whether boxers with PC can safety compete in combat sports.

Eye Trauma in Mixed Martial Arts and Boxing.

To evaluate and compare eye and face trauma in mixed martial arts (MMA) and boxing. Retrospective cohort study. Data from boxing and MMA competitions were extracted from the Nevada Athletic Commission (NAC) between 2000 and 2020. Details of competitions, contestants, outcomes, and injuries were extracted. In total 1539 boxing injuries (from 4313 contests) and 1442 MMA injuries (from 2704 contests) were identified. Boxing had higher eye injury rates compared to MMA ( p < 0.0001), with an odds ratio of 1.268 (95% CI, 1.114-1.444). Eye trauma represented 47.63% of boxing injuries and 25.59% of MMA injuries, with periocular lacerations being the most common eye injury in both. Orbital fractures represented 17.62% of eye injuries in MMA and 3.14% in boxing contests. However, 2%-3% were retinal in both sports, and 3.27% were glaucomatous in boxing. MMA contestants had an odds ratio of 1.823 (95% CI, 1.408-2.359) for requiring physician evaluation following an eye injury compared with boxing. MMA contestants also had a higher rate of face ( p < 0.0001) and body ( p < 0.0001) injuries. For both sports, an increased number of rounds and being the losing fighter were associated with increased odds of eye and face injury. Although boxing has a higher rate of eye injuries, MMA eye injuries are more likely to require physician evaluation. MMA contestants also have a higher rate of orbital fractures and face and body trauma. A detailed postfight examination and long-term follow-up of ocular injury in combat sports will be vital in proposing reforms to prevent eye trauma.

A boxer with a pipeline stent in the brain- Should this boxer be allowed to participate in professional boxing fight?

Professional boxing is a popular combat sport which unfortunately carries a high risk of acute traumatic brain injury (TBI). The nature of the sport is such that every punch thrown to the opponent’s head is thrown with the intention of winning by causing a concussive head injury (aka a knockout). Professional boxing is regulated by various State Athletic Commissions in the United States and abroad. Most commissions require an imaging study of the brain (either a computed tomography scan or a magnetic resonance scan) prior to licensure. The primary goal of neuroimaging prior to licensure is to identify and/or exclude coincidental or clinically suspected brain lesions which may pose a risk for rupture, bleeding, or other catastrophic brain injury during a bout/training. These lesions include aneurysms, arteriovenous malformations, cavernous malformations, large venous malformations, Vein of Galan malformations among others. A boxer with history of a left ophthalmic artery aneurysm status post embolization with placement of a pipeline shield in the distal left internal carotid artery (ICA) presented for licensure. Should this boxer be allowed to participate in professional boxing is debated.

Characteristics of Facial Trauma in Professional Mixed Martial Arts.

Background: Injuries are common in mixed martial arts (MMA) competitions. However, the risk factors for facial injury have not been delineated. Objective: Identify the facial injuries and associated risk factors of professional MMA fights. Methods: The Nevada State Athletic Commission medical injury reports from all professional Ultimate Fighting Championship bouts from 2010 to 2020 was reviewed. Fighter characteristics, details of the competition, and injuries sustained were collected. Binary logistic regressions determined significant predictors of facial injury. Results: A total of 1462 fighters were included. Most participants were male (91.0%) with mean age of 29.5 ± 4.1 years. Most fights took place between 135 and 185 lbs., lasted ≥3 rounds (59.4%), and resulted in judges' decision (50.5%) or knockout (31.2%). The facial injury rate was 15.8%, which were predominantly lacerations (12.0%) and fractures (3.6%). Multivariate regression revealed being male (p = 0.026), heavier weight (p = 0.028), more rounds fought (p = 0.019), losing (p < 0.001), and nonsubmission outcome (p = 0.017) predicted facial injury. Conclusion: Facial injuries are common in MMA fighting. The risks should be iterated to participants in this sport.

Upper limb injuries in mixed martial arts

ABSTRACT Objective Mixed-Martial-Arts(MMA) is a worldwide growing sport that incorporates different fighting styles and disciplines and is often associated with the Ultimate Fighting Championship(UFC) . The aim of this study is to explore the patterns and trends of upper limb injuries in MMA. Methods Ringside physician reports of the UFC fights between 2016 and 2019(inclusive) were extracted and screened from the Nevada State Athletic Commission(NSAC). The following variables were included: sex, weight division, injury mechanism, injury type, injury location, and type of finish. Injury rates were calculated and expressed per 100 athletic exposures (AE). An independent t-test, a one way analysis of variance(ANOVA), and a Joinpoint regression analysis were conducted to explore any significant differences or trends among variables. P-values<0.05 were considered significant(95% CI). Results A total of 81 upper limb injuries in 408 fights were recorded between 2016 and 2019. The injury rate was 9.9 injuries per 100 athletic-exposures(AE). Striking opponents was the most common mechanism of injury(p < 0.001). The hand was the most commonly injured location with an injury rate of 6.61 per 100AE(p < 0.001). Females had a higher upper limb injury rate than their male counterparts, but the difference failed to reach significance(p = 0.454). Similarly, no significant differences existed between rates of different types of injures. Matches ending with decision had the highest number of upper limb injuries with a rate of 12.6 per 100AE; however, no significant difference was determined between the rates of different ways of finish(p = 0.115). The strawweight(20.5 per 100AE), female flyweight(19.2 per 100AE), and male flyweight(13.8 per 100AE) divisions had the highest upper limb injury rates. Conclusion The hand was the most commonly injured upper limb location in MMA, and ‘striking opponent’ was the most common injury mechanism. Increasing padding in gloves and implementing medical examinations during bouts can help reduce injury rates.

Fight Outcomes In Mixed Martial Arts (mma) From 1991-2021: An Analysis Of 107,227 Competitions

Although MMA rules and regulations are similar around the world, they can vary by state, country, and organization. State athletic commissions sanction US-based events, while a governing body of the host nation typically sanctions international events. Accordingly, MMA athletes may have a differential injury risk based on where they fight or the organization for whom they fight. PURPOSE: To determine the distribution of fight outcomes, if outcome distribution varies among US and international organizations, and if major rule changes in US-based organizations have changed the distribution of fight outcomes. METHODS: We extracted data from the ESPN MMA database for fights that occurred between September 1991 and October 2021, capturing 115,512 fights. Fights that did not have a time (7045), round number (147), had rounds greater than five min (1091), or had more than five rounds (2) were removed, leaving 107,227 fights for analysis. When comparing organizations, we used four US (UFC, Bellator, Strikeforce, Invicta) and six international (ONE, Pride, Rizin, Pancrase, M-1 Global, Fight Night) organizations (30,510) and three US-based organizations when comparing pre- and post-adoption of the Unified Rules of MMA (UFC, Bellator, Strikeforce; 18,238). RESULTS: Fights were stopped due to submission (32.5%) or ended in decision (30.5%) most frequently, with knockout (6.3%), technical KO (19.0%), and KO/TKO (9.9%) comprising 35.2% of fight stoppages. When comparing US and international organizations, US fights were more likely to go to Decision (43.6% vs. 38.8%) or end in KO/TKO (23.8% vs. 17.6%), while international organizations had higher rates of Submission (24.6% vs. 21.9%), TKO (12% vs. 6.3%), and KO (3.2% vs. 2.0%). When comparing outcomes pre- and post-Unified Rules, we identified a 51.3% increase in the proportion of fights going to decision and a reduction in the proportion of fights ending in KO/TKO (33.3%) or Submission (28.4%), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Despite varying rules and regulations across organizations and locations, historical MMA fight outcomes have been similar for US and international competition. Furthermore, implementation of the Unified Rules by US-based organizations is associated with a lower proportion of fights ending by KO/TKO, implying a positive impact on MMA athlete safety.

Influence Of Rapid Weight Gain On Outcomes In Professional Boxers And Mixed Martial Artists

PURPOSE: Professional combat sport athletes commonly practice rapid weight gain (RWG) following official weigh-in to gain a theoretical competitive advantage over their opponent. Recent literature highlights conflicting evidence on the associations between RWG and competitive success. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of RWG on competitive success in large cohorts of professional boxers and mixed martial artists. METHODS: Fighter demographic and event records from 2015-2019 for 1582 professional boxers and 752 mixed martial artists were collected from the California State Athletic Commission (CSAC). Official weigh-in weights, event weights, and bout outcomes were recorded. Independent t-tests were used to compare absolute and relative weight gain based on bout outcome for each sport. Logistic regression was used to assess the relationships between bout outcome and predictors including weight gain, competitive level, weight class and year of competition. RESULTS: For boxers, winners gained significantly more absolute and relative weight than losers (4.9 ± 0.1 vs. 4.3 ± 0.1 kg, p < 0.001) and (7.9 ± 0.1 vs. 6.9 ± 0.1 %, p < 0.001), respectively. Logistic regression revealed relative RWG significantly predicted winning outcome (OR = 1.11, 95% CI [1.07, 1.15]). Among mixed martial artists, winners gained significantly more absolute and relative weight than losers (5.9 ± 0.1 vs. 5.3 ± 0.1 kg, p < 0.001) and (8.7 ± 0.2 vs. 7.8 ± 0.2 %, p < 0.001), respectively. Logistic regression revealed relative RWG significantly predicted winning outcome (OR = 1.07, 95% CI [1.03, 1.12]). CONCLUSIONS: Despite previous studies with conflicting findings, this study contributes further evidence that RWG confers a competitive advantage in professional boxing and mixed martial arts.

Rapid weight gain predicts fight success in mixed martial arts – evidence from 1,400 weigh-ins

ABSTRACT We aimed to analyze whether rapid weight gain (RWG) between the official weigh-in and the time of the fight was associated with fight success in MMA. A total of 700 professional MMA fights involving 1,400 weigh-ins from 21 MMA promotions regulated by the California State Athletic Commission were analyzed. Multilevel logistic regression accounting for individual (i.e. athlete) and cluster levels (i.e. fights) was used to analyze the association of all measures with a theoretical relationship with the dependent variable and without interdependency with one another (i.e. %RWG, sex, body mass division, competition level) with the fight outcome (i.e. win or loss). The odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) were calculated. The highest mean %RWG was found for the flyweight, bantamweight, featherweight, and lightweight divisions. The %RWG significantly predicted the fight outcome (ß = 0.044; OR = 1.045; 95%CI = 1.014–1.078; p = 0.005) so that for each 1% of additional RWG, the chance of winning increased by 4.5%. With the largest sample to date and in a “real-world” scenario, the present results suggest that the magnitude of RWG is linked to the chance of winning in MMA combats. It is suggested that regulatory commissions, confederations, and event organisers should consider regulating RWG, considering that, despite its detrimental impact on the athletes’ health and performance, the potential advantage might stimulate athletes to invest in rapid weight loss, followed by gain after the official weigh-in to increase their chance of winning.

Oral and Maxillofacial Injuries in the Ultimate Fighting Championship

PurposeThe Ultimate Fighting Championship is an American mixed martial arts (MMA) promotion company based in Las Vegas, NV, and it is the largest MMA company in the world featuring the best fighters in the sport. It showcases 12 weight divisions and acknowledges the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts. The purpose of this study was to characterize the types of maxillofacial injuries that occur in MMA fights of the UFC and the variables associated with them. Materials and methods: The Athletic Commissions and corresponding fighting regulatory departments from 16 states and 24 countries were screened for the medical reports released by UFC ringside physicians between January 2015 and December 2019. Information from the fighter's sex, weight, injuries, way of finish, and medical suspension time were collected. The chosen predictor variables were sex, weight division, injury location, and way of finish (i.e., technical knockout [TKO], knockout [KO], decision, and submission). The chosen outcome variables were frequency, medical suspension time, and type of injury (lacerations, fractures). Chi-square test was used for trend to determine if there was any statistical significance between sex, injury location, weight division, and way of finish. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine whether there are any statistically significant differences between frequencies, medical suspension time, and type of injuries. Results: Of the 319 injuries that met the inclusion criteria, 291 (91.2%) occurred in male fighters, and 28 (8.8%) occurred in females. Middle-third injuries were the most common for both males (49.1%) and females (53.5%). Male lower-third injuries were proportionally similar in males (8.3%) and females (7.1%); however, 14 mandible fractures occurred in men's fights, while none occurred in women's matches. A significant association between sex and injury location (P < .00001) was found. The male weight division having the longest medical suspensions were the light heavyweight (110.68 days) and the welterweight (108.25 days) (P < .10166); the female weight division with the longest medical suspension was bantamweight (85.71 days) and the shortest was straw weight (89.92 days) (P < .921123). No significant associations between male/female weight divisions and medical suspension times were found. There were significant associations between injury location and medical suspension time (P < .003906). Of the total 319 maxillofacial injuries, 183 of the matches were finished by decision (57.4%), 84 (26.3%) finished via TKO/KO, and 52 (16.3%) finished by submission. The most common TKO/KO zone was the face middle-third with 37 (44%), secondly the upper-third with 35 (41.6%) and lastly the lower-third with 12 (14.4%). There was a significant association between injury location and way of finish (P < .3257). Conclusion: Upper and midface trauma was significantly more common than lower-face trauma during the chosen timeframe. Injuries were more common in males; fractures were more common in the light heavyweight and welterweight divisions.

Rapid weight gain following weight cutting in male professional boxers

ABSTRACT Objectives Weight classifications are used in boxing and other combat sports to match opponents of similar size. Professional boxers commonly engage in a potentially harmful practice known as rapid weight loss or ‘weight cutting’ to make weight the day prior to competition before rehydrating and refueling. This investigation describes the prevalence and magnitude of rapid weight gain in boxers following weigh-in as well as differences in practice with respect to weight class and promotion. Methods This analysis describes official weight data from male professional boxers collected by the California State Athletic Commission between 2015 and 2018. A total of 399 athletes were included in the study. Results Among included athletes, 389 (97.5%) athletes gained weight between official weigh-in and competition. Total absolute body mass gained was 4.4 ± 2.2 kg corresponding to a total relative body mass gain of 7.2 ± 3.5%. Boxers competing in international promotions gained significantly more body mass than regional competitors (8.0 ± 3.0% vs. 6.6 ± 3.7%; p < 0.001). In total, 82 (20.6%) athletes gained 10% body mass or more before competition. More international competitors reached this 10% threshold than regional competitors (25.3% vs. 17.4%; p = 0.03). Conclusions These findings indicate high prevalence and magnitude of RWG in professional boxing, particularly in boxers competing in elite international promotions.

Prevalence, Patterns, and Characteristics of Eye Injuries in Professional Mixed Martial Arts

PurposeTo describe the frequency and type of eye injuries in fighters in mixed martial arts (MMA) competition.MethodsFight result data were collected from the Nevada Athletic Commission database from 2001 to 2020. Any fighters in a professional mixed martial arts (MMA) contest with an eye injury were included. Main outcome measures included frequency and rate of eye injuries per fight and the types of eye injuries. Secondary outcome measures were gender, laterality, decision type, and length of no-contact recommended.ResultsOf the 256 MMA events in the database, 187 events (73.3%) had at least one eye injury. Of a total 2208 fights at these events, there were 363 fighters who sustained 369 eye injuries, with the yearly rate of eye injuries per 100 fighters ranging from 2.56 to 12.22. The most common injuries were eyebrow and eyelid lacerations (n=160, 43%), lacerations around the eye (n=98, 27%), and orbital fractures (n=62, 17%). Most eye injuries were right sided (n=197, 53.3%) and the majority of fighters with eye injuries lost their match (n=228, 62.8%). Fifty-seven fighters were recommended for further ophthalmology clearance after the match. The most common reasons for recommended ophthalmology follow-up was orbital fracture (n=25, 44%) and retinal injury (n=7, 12%). Forty-three fighters received no-contact requirements relating to their injury for an average of 8.9 weeks (range 1–24 weeks).ConclusionOphthalmic injuries in professional MMA were prevalent, were most often lacerations surrounding the eye, and often accompanied the fighter losing their match.

Rapid Weight Gain Following Weight Cutting in Male and Female Professional Mixed Martial Artists.

Rapid weight loss or "weight cutting" is a common but potentially harmful practice used in mixed martial arts competition. Following the official weigh-in, competitors refeed and rehydrate themselves in a process known as rapid weight gain (RWG) to realize a potential competitive advantage. While data from surveys and small series have indicated the majority of mixed martial arts athletes engage in rapid weight loss, there is a lack of officially collected data from sanctioning organizations describing its prevalence. The present investigation represents a summary of the data collected between December 2015 and January 2018 by the California State Athletic Commission. In total, 512 professional mixed martial artists (455 males and 57 females) were included. Of these, 503 (98%) athletes gained body mass between weigh-in and their bouts. Total RWG between weigh-in and competition was 5.5 ± 2.5kg, corresponding to an 8.1% ± 3.6% body mass increase. Total RWG was 5.6 ± 2.5kg (8.1% ± 3.6%) for males and 4.5 ± 2.3kg (8.0% ± 3.8%) for females. More than one quarter of men and one third of women gained >10% body mass between weigh-in and competition. Athletes from leading international promotions gained more absolute, but not relative, body mass than those from regional promotions. Our findings indicate RWG is nearly ubiquitous in professional , with a similar prevalence in male and female athletes. Trends based on promotion suggest a larger magnitude of RWG in presumably more experienced and/or successful mixed martial artists from leading international promotions.

Evaluation of the early weigh-in policy for mixed martial arts events adopted by North American athletic commissions

ABSTRACT Objective To characterize the epidemiology of overweight athletes before and after the introduction of the Early Weigh-In Policy (EWIP). Methods A retrospective cohort study examined the weigh-in results for professional mixed martial arts (MMA) events over a 2-year period around the introduction of the new EWIP between 2014 and 2018. Descriptive statistics were used to characterize the study populations. Risk ratios were used to identify differences in the study populations before and after the introduction of the EWIP. Results After the introduction of the EWIP, the number of overweight athletes increased from 5.7% to 8.4% and the average overweight mass increased from 1.3 kg (2.9 lbs) to 1.8 kg (3.9 lbs) [difference, 0.5 kg (1.0 lb), p = 4.35 × 10^(−5)]. The proportion of athletes is not distributed similarly across the different overweight mass categories when comparing the pre- and post-EWIP time frames (p = 0.006). More athletes in the pre-EWIP period were overweight by smaller amount, while in the post-EWIP period athletes were overweight by larger amount. Of the athletes who were overweight before the regulation change, 28.7% were over the weight limit by greater than 1.8 kg (4 lbs), compared to 39.5% after the new EWIP introduction. On average, the ratio of overweight athletes per events by commission was 1.2 before the introduction of the EWIP and 2.1 after. Conclusion These results appear to indicate that the EWIP has not altered weight-cutting culture in MMA in a positive manner. This study casts doubt on the benefits of an EWIP and raised the possibility of utilizing the longitudinal weight monitoring approach to mitigate rapid weight-cycling behavior. However, before additional changes are made by any athletic commission, further research is needed to examine the efficacy of the abovementioned longitudinal weight monitoring approach or any other strategy.

Craniofacial and traumatic brain injuries in mixed martial arts

ABSTRACT Objective: Mixed-Martial-Arts (MMA) has witnessed a rapid growth over the recent years. This study aims to explore the patterns and trends of head injuries in MMA. Design: Descriptive epidemiological study. Setting: Ringside physician reports of the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) fights between 2016 and 2019 (inclusive) were screened. Data were extracted from the Nevada State Athletic Commission (NSAC) database. Play-by-play video analysis was also conducted. Participants: UFC fighters involved in fights sanctioned by the NSAC, between 2016 and the end of 2019 (N = 816). Independent variables: Sex, location of head injury, type of head injury, injury mechanism, number of significant head strikes, type of finish, and weight division. Main outcome measures: Head injury rates were calculated. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to explore any statistically significant differences between injury rates of different locations, types, and types of finishes. An independent t-test was used to determine whether any significant differences existed between the two sexes, and a Joinpoint regression analysis was used to determine the statistical significance of the trends of head injury rates across different weight divisions. P-values <0.05 were considered significant (95% CI). Results: A total of 288 head injuries in 408 fights were recorded during our study period. Head injury rate constituted 35 injuries per 100 athletic-exposures (AE) in sanctioned fights. Traumatic brain injuries (TBI) were the most common type of injury, with a rate of 16 per 100AE, significantly greater than that of fractures (p = 0.003). Males had a head injury rate of 37 per 100AE, higher than that of females which was 23 per 100AE. Technical Knockout (TKO)/ Knockout(KO) was the type of finish with the highest rate of head injuries, significantly greater than that of decision or submission (p < 0.001). In general, head injury rates were higher as weight divisions increased. Conclusion: Head injuries are prevalent in MMA. Preventive measures need to be implemented to ensure fighter safety and limit injury risk.

Worth the Weight? Post Weigh-In Rapid Weight Gain is Not Related to Winning or Losing in Professional Mixed Martial Arts.

Body mass (BM) manipulation via rapid weight loss (RWL) and rapid weight gain (RWG) is a common practice among mixed martial art (MMA) athletes to ensure qualification for the division in which the athlete wishes to compete. Professional MMA competitors in California are required to weigh in twice: 24hr prior to competition and immediately prior to the bout after they have typically engaged in RWG. In analyzing data from five MMA events sanctioned by the Californian State Athletic Commission, the authors used Bayesian analyses to compare bout winners (n = 62) and losers (n = 62) in terms of in-competition BM (in kilograms) and the amount of BM regained between the two weigh-ins (in kilograms). These data do not support the hypothesis that differences in in-competition BM (Bayes factor [BF10] = 0.667, d = 0.23) or the amount of BM regained between the two weigh-ins (BF10 = 0.821, d = 0.23) determine winning or losing. In addition, there was no statistical difference between bouts ending via strikes, submission, or decision for either in-competition BM (BF10 = 0.686, ω2 < 0.01) or the amount of BM regained between the two weigh-ins (BF10 = 0.732, ω2 = 0.054). In conclusion, the authors report for the first time that the magnitude of RWG does not predict winning or losing in a professional cohort of MMA athletes. In addition, they also report that MMA athletes typically compete at a BM that is at least 1-2 divisions higher than the division in which they officially weighed-in. These analyses may provide impetus for governing bodies and coaches to enact changes at both professional and amateur levels to reduce negative health consequences associated with extreme RWL and RWG.

Bump by Matt Wallace

Reviewed by: Bump by Matt Wallace Elizabeth Bush Wallace, Matt Bump. Tegen/HarperCollins, 2021 [288p] Trade ed. ISBN 9780063007987 $16.99 E-book ed. ISBN 9780063008007 $8.99 Reviewed from digital galleys R Gr. 4-7 Her father has left, she and her mother have moved to a smaller home, and she's being bullied by her gymnastics teammates, so twelve-year-old MJ needs a radical change to reengage her with life, and she find it in her next door neighbor, Mr. Arellano, who owns Victory Academy, a training gym for luchadores. Arellano is deterred by MJ's youth and her mother is initially opposed, but MJ convinces both adults to let her test her mettle at the sport she and her papi once enjoyed together as spectators. Putting gymnastics behind her, MJ makes a friend of a freshman trainee and enjoys the tutelage of a more experienced teen, who teaches her how to safely weather the dramatic falls and deceptive maneuvers that are part of traditional lucha wrestling. Just as MJ's star status ascends, the academy's existence is threatened by an inspector from the state athletic commission, who will stop at nothing to close it down. Adult fantasy writer Wallace draws on his own wrestling background to make MJ's every physically punishing step forward a visceral experience for sports-story enthusiasts, and her steady movement toward independence and the acceptance of her father's death will gratify middle grades domestic drama readers. [End Page 238] Copyright © 2021 The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois

Musculoskeletal and head injuries in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC)

ABSTRACTObjectives: Mixed martial arts (MMA) has witnessed a surge in popularity worldwide. This study explores the musculoskeletal and head injuries sustained in the professional fights of the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC), and establishes associations between injury profiles and impactful contributory factors.Methods: The Nevada State Athletic Commission database was screened for ringside physician reports of UFC fights between January 2016 and July 2018. Information on the fighter’s gender, weight, injury, way of finish, and match result were collected. Injury rates were calculated and statistical analyses were conducted to determine significant associations among variables. P-values <0.05 were considered significant (95% CI).Results: A total of 291 injuries were recorded in 285 fights from nine weight divisions. The overall injury rate was 51 per 100 athletic exposures (AE). Males predominantly partook in 249 matches (87%) and had higher injury rates (54 injuries per 100 AE) than females (30 injuries per 100 AE). Decision was the most common way a match ended. Knockouts (KOs) were significantly higher in males (36%) than in females (14%, P = 0.0007). Submissions were significantly higher in females (36%) than in males (16%, P = 0.001). Head injuries (67%) were the most common injuries reported with a rate of 34 per 100 AE. Upper limb injuries were significantly higher in females (40%) than in males (14%, P = 0.0003). Lower limb injuries were significantly higher in males (19%) than in females (5%, P = 0.01). Head injuries were significantly associated with KOs (P < 0.0001). Upper limb injuries (P = 0.032) and lower limb injuries (P = 0.034) were significantly associated with matches that ended with Decision. Trend-line analyses showed that as weight division increases, overall injury rates, head injuries, lower limb injuries, and KOs’ frequency increase, whereas upper limb injuries, Submission frequency, and Decision frequency decrease.Conclusion: MMA has a high injury rate. Gender, way of finish, and weight play an important role in predicting fight outcomes and injury profiles. Injury prevention policies must be entertained to limit injury risk in MMA.

Seeing like a state athletic commission: Multi-case ethnography and the making of ‘underground’ combat sports

How can ethnographers access and assess macro-sociological influences on everyday life? This article extends Burawoy’s multi-case solution, which illuminates structural forces through case comparison, by using then critiquing it. I compare non-sanctioned fight events in two US states and ask why one organizes combat with self-regulation while the other utilizes a rationalized rule set, initially theorizing state regulation as the driver of contrasting niche markets. Yet to solve the first puzzle I must address another: why do organizers talk about avoiding governmental intervention when neither fears investigation? Drawing on ethnomethodology, I show how ‘the state’ becomes a resource for organizational boundary work. My contribution to micro-macro analysis is to reconcile the two frames: actual structural pressures disclosed by multi-case logic and the false discourse of ‘the state’ observed in interaction. Eschewing polemics over ‘relational’ versus ‘comparative’ approaches, I demonstrate the necessity of pluralism to see ‘the macro’ in ethnography.

Performance Evaluation and Favoritism

This article investigates various types of bias and favoritism that may be present in the performance evaluations of state-licensed and state-selected judges for mixed martial arts (MMA) events. Using detailed fighter performance statistics collected from after-the-fact video analysis, I investigate live, round-by-round judging decisions for major MMA events held in Nevada and California from 2001 to 2012. Findings do not support hypotheses that judge favor titleholders or disfavor fighters given point deductions but do support bias toward larger betting favorites, those with insurmountable leads, and the fighter who won the previous round. Findings provide nonexperimental support for possible biases in a relatively opaque decision environment involving substantial complexity. The results also have strategic implications for MMA fighters and coaches as well as certified judge trainers the athletic commissions that license and oversee the judges.

Injuries to Professional and Amateur Kickboxing Contestants: A 15-Year Retrospective Cohort Study.

Background:Kickboxing is a group of full-contact combat sports that allows both kicking and punching from a standing position. Despite its popularity, there is a scarcity of published data elucidating the injury epidemiology in kickboxing.Purpose:To determine the injury incidence, describe the injury pattern, and identify potential risk factors for injury in kickboxing.Study Design:Descriptive epidemiology study.Methods:Data describing fight outcomes and injuries sustained during professional and amateur kickboxing contests over a 15-year period were obtained from the official records of the Nevada Athletic Commission, United States. Injury incidence rates and rate ratios were calculated with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) per 1000 athlete-exposures (AEs) and per 1000 minutes of exposure. The injury pattern was described using frequencies and proportions of injuries by anatomic region and type of injury. In addition, Poisson mixed-effects generalized linear modeling was used to examine the multivariate relationships between injury incidence rates and potential risk factors.Results:The sample consisted of 481 unique fighters competing across 57 events, 976 AEs, 9562 minutes of exposure, and 380 injuries. The mean ± SD age of the fighters was 29.0 ± 5.3 years (range, 15-48 years). The overall injury incidence rates were 390.1 injuries (95% CI, 351.9-431.4) per 1000 AEs and 39.7 injuries (95% CI, 35.8-43.9) per 1000 minutes of exposure. The most commonly injured anatomic regions were the head (57.8%) and lower extremity (26.1%), while the most common types of injury were laceration (70.6%) and fracture (20.6%). Professional fighters were 2.5 times more likely to get injured compared with amateurs (rate ratio, 2.51; 95% CI, 1.39-4.55), while defeated fighters were 3.5 times more likely to get injured compared with winners (rate ratio, 3.48; 95% CI, 2.73-4.44).Conclusion:Injuries are frequent and often significant in kickboxing, and better injury surveillance is strongly recommended. The scarcity of good-quality epidemiological data in kickboxing, especially pertaining to the severity of injuries, underscores the urgent need for further research, whereupon evidence-informed sport safety and injury prevention policies can be developed.