Assistant Referees Research Articles

Does video assistant referee technology change the magnitude and direction of home advantages and referee bias? A proof-of-concept study

BackgroundThis study analyzed how Video Assistant Referee (VAR), introduced to improve the accuracy of referee decisions in football, changes the magnitude and direction of home advantage and referee bias in the Turkish Super League.MethodsWe analyzed points, goals, yellow cards and red cards, fouls, penalties, and offside data from 1,838 matches played in the Turkish Super League with and without VAR. Two-sample t-tests and two one-sided tests analysis were applied to determine the differences between the home and away team data between the seasons played with and without VAR.ResultsThe findings revealed that the only variable that changed significantly after VAR was implemented was fouls, which decreased for both home (p <.001; d = 0.56, medium effect) and away teams (p <.001; d = 0.69, medium effect). The results also indicated that, with or without VAR, home teams had an advantage over away teams in points and goals, and away teams faced more referee bias regarding yellow cards and penalties (against).ConclusionsAlthough this study shows that VAR does not significantly impact the HA and referee bias of football matches, nevertheless, teams should be more aware that bias is reduced when playing away. In addition, this study offers some practical applications that can help football players, coaches, and match officials better understand VAR technology’s effects on HA and referee bias.

The attitude of online fans: perceived value, expectation, and identification on VAR satisfaction.

This study explores online fan satisfaction with the Video Assistant Referee (VAR) during the FIFA World Cup Qatar 2022. A structural equation model comprising perceived value, fan expectation, fan identification, and fan satisfaction was run. The online questionnaires were distributed among Chinese football fans. A total of 224 valid responses were received. Using indicators like Cronbach's alpha coefficient, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) statistic, and Bartlett's test of sphericity, the results were assessed for reliability, validity, and suitability. From the statistical results, the overall satisfaction of fans with VAR is the middle. Both fan expectation and perceived value positively affect satisfaction (p < 0.01); the path coefficients were 0.26 and 0.57. Contrastingly, fan identification exerts no significant effect on fan satisfaction (p > 0.05); and fan expectation indirectly affects fan satisfaction through perceived value (p < 0.01); the path coefficient was 0.29. The highest effect value for fan satisfaction is perceived value, followed by fan expectation. Consequently, to improve online fan satisfaction with VAR, researchers should focus on perceived value. This research contributes to a greater more comprehensive of Chinese online fans' preference towards VAR at the FIFA World Cup Qatar 2022.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN TECHNOLOGIES IN THE TRAINING AND COMPETITIVE PROCESS OF ELITE ATHLETES IN SPORTS GAMES

Introduction. The integration of modern technologies is crucial for enhancing elite athlete training, offering cutting-edge tools for performance optimization. The widespread use of technology in elite sports, including video assistant referees and wearable sensors, providing real-time biomechanical oversight, challenges related to ethics, data protection, and regulatory frameworks require resolution for widespread implementation. This study aims to conduct a thorough assessment of the integration of modern technologies, specifically examining their efficacy in optimizing the training performance and competitive outcomes of elite athletes in sports games. Material and Methods. Bibliometric techniques and expert evaluations were used to determine the modern trends in innovative technologies to improve the effectiveness of elite athletes` preparation. A thorough biomechanical analysis utilizing diverse methods was performed on 41 elite athletes in sports games. Results. The examination of sports science literature and expert assessments unveils predominant trends in the utilization of innovative technologies in elite sports, with a particular emphasis on the widespread adoption of wearable technology, biomechanics and motion analysis, and recovery and regeneration techniques. The outcomes from OpenCap biomechanical analysis show a high correlation (r=0.99, α = 0.05) between the symmetry of knee joint angles during barbell squats by elite athletes, confirming the efficacy of real-time monitoring exercise techniques. The Romberg coefficient of 194.5% ± 2.47 indicates a notable degree of stability among elite athletes. Conclusions. This study enhances the comprehension of innovative technologies, exemplified by OpenCap biomechanical analysis, and their effectiveness in optimizing the training performance and competitive outcomes of elite athletes in sports games. The findings provide valuable insights for coaches, sports scientists, and researchers aiming to optimize training methods and elevate athlete performance in sports games.

Improvements in Primary Emergency Care Understanding during Matches for Football Coaches and Referees in East Java

Improper initial management of emergency conditions during soccer matches causes long-term morbidity, affects the athlete’s future performance, and is sometimes life-threatening. Soccer coaches and referees can be laypeople who give first aid and understand when to remove the athlete from the field of play. This program aims to improve the emergency management knowledge of the coaches and referees in East Java. This program was conducted in September 2022 – January 2023. All referees, assistant referees, and coaches of the Football Association of Indonesia region East Java who attended this training were included. The emergency management training was presented material using video, PowerPoint media, and hands-on mannequins. Before and after the training, participants were given some questions to assess their level of knowledge, with a minimum passing score was 75. Comparative tests (Wilcoxon signed rank, McNemar, and Chi-square test) were used to analyze the data. A hundred and twenty-eight (128) participants were included in this program. The median of the pre-and post-test scores were 62.5 and 87.5. There was a significant difference between pre-and post-test scores (p &lt; 0.001). There was no significant difference between coaches and referee groups in pre-test scores (p = 0.743). However, in the post-test score, the coach group had a significantly higher number of participants who did not pass than the referee group (29.6% vs. 10.8%, p = 0.007). This program improved the emergency knowledge during matches of the coaches and referees to prevent adding the severity of injuries of the soccer athlete.

Efeitos da atuação do árbitro assistente de vídeo na Copa do Mundo FIFA® 2018

The present study aimed to verify the performance of the video assistant referee at the 2018 FIFA World Cup and compare it with the 2010 and 2014 editions. The initial hypothesis is that the use of the video assistant referee modifies the average of penalties, offsides, fouls and cards. A documentary analysis of the arbitration was carried out, in a descriptive study, through the collection of disciplinary data from the 2010, 2014 and 2018 FIFA World Cups. To compare the data from the 2010 and 2014 World Cups with 2018, initially a Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test was performed. After verifying the normal distribution of the data, the one-way ANOVA test was used to compare data between the editions of the FIFA World Cup®. The significance level adopted was p &lt; 0.05. It was verified that in the 2018 World Cup, the most reviewed bids by VAR were penalties, followed by offsides. When comparing the data from the 2010 and 2014 World Cups with 2018, it was verified that there were more penalties and a lower number of fouls, red cards and offsides in 2018. Therefore, it is concluded that VAR mainly reviewed the penalty shootouts, changing the average of fouls, red cards, penalties and offsides scored in the 2018 World Cup, compared to 2010 and 2014.

The Effects of Korea and China Professional Soccer Spectators" Recognition on Video Assistant Referee, Watching Satisfaction, and Re-watching Intention

The Effects of Korea and China Professional Soccer Spectators" Recognition on Video Assistant Referee, Watching Satisfaction, and Re-watching Intention

Football and the video assistant referee: A grounded theory approach

Few studies have examined the impact of technological officiating aids on football. The purpose of this study is to design a comprehensive model examining the use of video assistant referee (VAR) technology in football. Based on interviews with eminent sports experts, this study explores the use of VAR technology in football and provides a paradigm model. Data analysis was based on the continuous comparison method during three stages of open, axial and selective coding. The findings point to the ability of a referee to make an informed decision regarding an incident during a match and trends suggest continuing adoption of new technologies in decision support systems. In the model, causal conditions (e.g. rules and regulations, innovation in football) attract attention to the axial phenomenon (i.e. application of VAR technology to football) and strategies for its use (e.g. Total Quality Management, justice, increasing referee supervision) given the interfering factors (e.g. fair play, competition) and existing contexts (e.g. control of anti-football behaviours, referee performance, information technology, IT, control of violence and aggression), which create consequences (i.e. process weakness, slowing down the game, passion killing, increasing the quality of the referee’s decision, increasing referee confidence, economical, increasing decision-making accuracy). Therefore, given the contextual conditions and the intervening factors, implementing VAR technology should improve the quality of football competitions. The research concludes that VAR has the potential to enhance the quality of football competitions but also acknowledges the need to address its negative impacts and ensure sustainable development.

Video expert assessment of high quality video for Video Assistant Referee (VAR): A comparative study

The International Football Association Board decided to introduce Video Assistant Referee (VAR) in 2018. This led to the need to develop methods for quality control of the VAR-systems. This article focuses on the important aspect to evaluate the video quality. Video Quality assessment has matured in the sense that there are standardized, commercial products and established open-source solutions to measure it with objective methods. Previous research has primarily focused on the end-user quality assessment. How to assess the video in the contribution phase of the chain is less studied. The novelties of this study are two-fold: 1) The user study is specifically targeting video experts i.e., to assess the perceived quality of video professionals working with video production. 2) Six video quality models have been independently benchmarked against the user data and evaluated to show which of the models could provide the best predictions of perceived quality. The independent evaluation is important to get unbiased results as shown by the Video Quality Experts Group. An experiment was performed involving 25 video experts in which they rated the perceived quality. The video formats tested were High-Definition TV both progressive and interlaced as well as a quarters size format that was scaled down half the size in both width and height. The videos were encoded with both H.264 and Motion JPEG for the full size but only H.264 for the quarter size. Bitrates ranged from 80 Mbit/s down to 10 Mbit/s. We could see that for H.264 that the quality was overall very good but dropped somewhat for 10 Mbit/s. For Motion JPEG the quality dropped over the whole range. For the interlaced format the degradation that was based on a simple deinterlacing method did receive overall low ratings. For the quarter size three different scaling algorithms were evaluated. Lanczos performed the best and Bilinear the worst. The performance of six different video quality models were evaluated for 1080p and 1080i. The Video Quality Metric for Variable Frame Delay had the best performance for both formats, followed by Video Multimethod Assessment Fusion method and the Video Quality Metric General model.

Determining the definition and components of successful soccer referee performance

ABSTRACT There has been little work examining the intricacies of what makes a soccer referee successful. The aim of this study was to determine what the definition of a successful referee performance is and what are the characteristics of a successful referee from a broad range of stakeholders in Major League Soccer (MLS) and the Professional Referees Organisation (PRO). The study used Delphi methodology to ask 6 MLS General Managers, 2 MLS Coaches,1 MLS League Officer, 4 PRO Referees and 10 PRO Assistant Referees, 8 PRO Staff and 5 PRO Assessors, and 2 PRO2 Referees two questions: 1. Their definition of a successful referee performance. 2. Their opinion on the characteristics of a successful referee. The result was a 7-point definition of a successful referee performance and 26 characteristics of a successful referee. There were ten characteristics that overlapped with previous work examining successful referees. This study was able to develop a definition of a successful referee performance and determine the characteristics of a successful referee.

The influence of the video assistance referee (VAR) on the English Premier League

ABSTRACT The Video Assistant Referee (VAR) was introduced into football in order to assist referees in their decision making during the match. The English Premier League (EPL) introduced VAR in the 2019-2020 season. The aim of this study was to explore the influence of the introduction of VAR on the English Premier League. The sample includes all 380 matches played in the 2018-2019 season without VAR and all 380 matches played in the 2019-2020 season with VAR. The following nine variables were collected for each match: the first half time, the second half time, total time, goals, penalties, fouls, yellow cards, red cards and offsides. These variables were compared pre and post the introduction of VAR using means comparison and Mixed Linear Model (MLM). The results demonstrated that after the introduction of VAR, the first half time, second half time, total time and fouls increased significantly (p< 0.01). In contrast, a significant decrease (p< 0.01) was found in the number of offsides after the implementation of VAR. The findings may help football practitioners and fans better understand the impact of VAR on European top professional football leagues, particularly on the English Premier League and also help to optimise referees’ officiating strategies.

Study of the functional load of elite football assistant referees in the Republic of Bulgaria during official matches

Study of the functional load of elite football assistant referees in the Republic of Bulgaria during official matches

Does the Video Assistant Referee (VAR) mitigate referee bias on professional football?

The purpose of the paper is to check whether the introduction of the VAR system mitigated the referee bias against away teams. The dataset comprises 2279 matches played in the first tier of the Brazilian League from 2016 to 2021. We analyze 6 seasons of the first tier of the Brazilian domestic football league- 3 seasons before and 3 seasons after the introduction of the VAR technology. Potential bias is viewed through the lens of yellow cards, red cards and number of penalties awarded for both home and away clubs. A paired t-test is used to reveal potential statistical differences between pre-VAR and post-VAR periods, followed by Ordinary Least Squares regressions to inspect whether certain referee' categories have changed their behavior after the implementation of this technology. Our empirical findings offer evidence that the referee bias is diminished, but still present.

Effect of speed, agility and quickness (SAQ) exercises on the development of physical abilities of soccer referees in Iraq

The aim of this study was to develop exercises specifically designed to enhance the physical and motor abilities of football referees. Additionally, it sought to identify the percentage of development in the studied variables. The researchers deliberately chose to use the experimental method with a single experimental group and conducted two tests before and after, which is more suitable for achieving the objectives of the research. The research sample comprised 20 referees, with 10 being yard referees and 10 assistant referees. The following tests were used: Speed Test for Arena Referees (FIFA), Speed Endurance Test for Arena Referees, Agility Test for Assistant Referees (Coda): (FIFA), Speed Test for Assistant Referees (FIFA), Speed Endurance Test for Assistant Referees (FIFA). The researchers utilized the statistical software package SPSS to extract and analyze the results of the research variables. Statistically significant differences were observed between the pre and post-tests of the research sample, favoring the post-tests, indicating the effectiveness of the training program utilizing SAQ exercises in developing various physical and motor abilities among the individuals. The results clearly demonstrated the positive impact of this training approach. Notably, the referees exhibited a notable level of enthusiasm during the exercises, reflecting their eagerness to engage in a training method that was novel to them, which was evident in the differences observed in the results.

Evaluation of The Effect of The VAR System on The Matches Played in the 2022 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Women's EURO 2022

Football is one of the most important sports branches in the world that people adopt and show interest in. It has also become an indispensable tool for countries to emphasise their unique cultures and to promote themselves. Based on these points, in football, which has become an industry and a source of commercial income with the passing of time, it has been important to follow the competitions meticulously, to examine every detail, and to minimise the errors to the minimum level. Especially in big organisations, this situation is more prominent. In this regard, the video assistant referee system, which is a product of teamwork, has been developed through digital platforms to assist and support the referee during the match. The aim of this study is to reveal the effect of the VAR system on the matches played in the 2022 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Women's EURO 2022. In the study, 64 matches played in the 2022 FIFA World Cup, 31 matches played in the UEFA Women's EURO 2022 and 95 matches in total were analysed. VAR decisions in the tournaments were evaluated separately on 11 parameters (accuracy of the goal awarded, accuracy of the goal not awarded, goal cancellation, goal awarded, accuracy of the penalty awarded, accuracy of the penalty not awarded, penalty cancellation, penalty awarded, red card awarded, red card cancelled and other). The data were analysed in SPSS 25.0 package program and descriptive statistics, percentage and frequency values were used in the analysis. According to the results obtained, it was determined that VAR had a direct effect on the 2022 World Cup only in some of the group matches; in the UEFA Women's EURO 2022, in some group matches and in the France Netherlands quarter-final match. As a result, it can be said that although the VAR system faced some reactions when it was first used, it contributed to the accuracy and reliability of the decisions made in the match and the tournament or league was shaped in line with the results that the teams deserved.

The video assistant referee (VAR) in soccer: Where is the biomechanics?

The aim of this article is to explore the basic principles of Biomechanics in relation to the objective measurements carried out by the Video Assistant Referee (VAR) operators and systems in soccer. It was presented an overall framework about the determination of kinematical variables, the definition and the sources of error, the understanding of factors contributing to errors in VAR decisions, and prospects for future solutions. To exemplify these concepts, the offside rule was chosen as it offers numerous instances of tools aiding for accurate measurements. Based on consolidated procedures of literature, a discussion about the actual challenges and an suggestions for a fully comprehension and improvement of VAR were provided.

Comparisons and associations among anthropometric indices of first and second division and assistant soccer referees.

Body composition is an important predictor of performance and a key component of health and physical fitness. Therefore, the purposes of this study were to compare soccer referees of the first and second divisions and field assistant referees from Iran and to analyze associations of a body shape index (ABSI), body adiposity index (BAI), abdominal volume index (AVI), body roundness index (BRI), conicity index (ConI), and body mass index (BMI) with body fat percentage (%BF). A total of 270 male soccer referees from the first (n = 124) and second (n = 72) divisions and assistant referees (n = 74) participated in this study. Skinfold thickness (measured at the chest, biceps, triceps, subscapular, abdominal, iliac crest, and front thigh), height, weight, hip circumference, and waist circumference were assessed to evaluate waist-to-height ratio (WHtR), %BF, and also ABSI, BRI, BAI, ConI, and AVI according to the ISAK protocol. The main results indicated differences in WHR, WHtR, ABSI, BRI, AVI, ConI, and BF% with the assistant referees presenting higher values (p < 0.05). When considering the backward selection model, there were some associations with %BF in each group, specifically BMI, BAI, and ABSI in the first division; BMI, WHR, and ABSI in the second division; and BMI in the assistant referee group (all p < 0.05). The present study did not confirm the hypothesis that the first-division referees presented better body composition-related variables than the second division or assistant referees. Instead, it showed that the assistant referees that participated in both divisions showed a tendency to higher values which suggests that the level of division is not a major factor when analyzing body composition.

Waiting to score. Conversion probability and the video assistant referee (VAR) in football penalty kicks

ABSTRACT The VAR has introduced a new element to football. Before, a decision to award a penalty kick could not be reversed. The player taking the penalty could take it relatively quickly after the referee called the foul. After the introduction of the VAR, every penalty kick decision is replayed by the VAR and also quite often reviewed on-field. As a consequence, time between the initial decision by the referee and the actual penalty kick has increased substantially. We examined the influence of the time-interval duration between the foul and the actual penalty kick on the conversion probability using a logit model. Also, we assessed the consequences of a VAR intervention, if any. We used data on all 2888 penalties awarded in top leagues in England, Spain, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and the UEFA Champions League, over the course of five seasons (2015/2016–2019/2020). We found that the duration between the foul and the moment the penalty is taken does not impact the conversion probability. However, whether or not the VAR intervenes with the referee’s decision has a negative effect on the conversion probability of penalty kicks. Football teams and coaches should incorporate this element of uncertainty in training.

Video Assistant Referee in soccer: A Scoping Review

The Video Assistant Referee (VAR) is a technology that is changing the behavior of referees, players, managers, and fans in soccer. This scoping review mapped the studies on the use of VAR in soccer. An electronic database searching was performed in November 2020 using Medline/PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Studies that analyzed field referees or video assistants and addressed professional field soccer were eligible. Studies’ characteristics were extracted and summarized. An initial search found 346 potentially relevant titles; six of them followed all eligibility criteria, providing information on VAR in high-performance men’s soccer competitions held in 18 countries. There was a multiplicity of variables analyzed in the primary studies, mainly quantitative approaches of the VAR effects on game parameters, as follows: Decision-making process (n=4), game time (n=3); goals (n=5); offside (n=4); yellow and red card application (n=3); fouls (n=2); penalties (n=3); and VAR incidents (n=2). In general, primary studies have indicated that VAR can significantly enhance the accuracy of referees' decision-making, as well as having had a positive influence on the game's outcome. However, some negative aspects have been observed, such as a reduction in effective playing time and limited training for referees. Studies on VAR in soccer are still in their initial stages, and research priorities were highlighted to help future research and practice on VAR in soccer. Keywords: Sport, Soccer, Football, Decision Making, "Video-Assisted Techniques and Procedures"

Influence of physical fitness on decision-making of soccer referees throughout the match

The purpose of this study was to analyze the relationships between physical fitness and physical performance in competition and the decision-making (successes and errors). A sample of 22 male national-level soccer referees (weight: 72.7 kg; height: 178.0 cm; age: 23.4 years) participated in this study. Physical fitness was assessed through 6 series of 40 m (velocity) and Yo-yo (aerobic) test in annual exam by Soccer Committee, physical performance was performed through the total distance covered in competition (Experiment 1), and decision-making was registered through a simulated Video Assistant Referee system (VAR) with the consensus of 2 national referees evaluating only warnings (yellow cards), expulsions (red cards), established penalties and obvious goal actions (called and no called) (Experiments 2 and 3). Results showed that physical fitness test was related with total distance (rho = 0.63, p < .01) and success rate percentage (rho = 0.74, p < .05) registered during competition. The success rate percentage, in the first half, was observed 44% successes, and in the second half, 59% successes. The number of events called was related with the physical fitness test score (R2 = 0.71, p = .035; R2 = 0.64, p = .056, respectively). As conclusion, the main finding of this study has provided insight into decision-making behavior in real competitive matches and the physical fitness was the predictor of the successful decision-making being able to determine the permanency, promotion or decrease of category.

Cause-Effect: The Relationship between Role and Experience with Psychological and Physical Responses in the Competition Context in Soccer Referees.

This study analyzed the effects of psychological responses (impulsivity, self-esteem, self-confidence, and anxiety) in baseline and pre-competitive contexts of national soccer referees (SRs), their control of the game (yellow and red cards), and physical performance (PP) according to the role (assistant or main referee), and experience in the category. Twenty-seven national SRs from Spain participated in this study. Baseline and pre-competitive psychological data were collected through the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2 test), Urgency, Premeditation (lack of), Perseverance (lack of), Sensation Seeking, Positive Urgency, Impulsive Behavior Scale (UPPS-P test), and Rosenberg tests. Furthermore, WIMU PRO™ inertial devices were used to monitor PP. The results indicated that a lack of perseverance and self-esteem were higher in the main SRs and somatic anxiety in assistant SRs. Experience of SRs was related to anxiety, self-confidence, self-esteem, impulsivity dimensions, and PP metrics (p < 0.05). Finally, red cards were related to positive and negative urgency (r = 0.38 and r = 0.35, p < 0.05, respectively). In conclusion, the main SRs and SRs with more experience had better psychological characteristics and PP in a competitive context. However, yellow and red cards were not associated with these factors, although red cards were related with urgency. Based on these data, specific training programs could be incorporated to enhance emotional control in SRs with less experience to achieve greater performance and professional development.