Policy Assessment Research Articles

Climate action from a gender perspective: A systematic review of the impact of climate policies on inequality

In 1992 the United Nations committed to promoting a gender perspective in all environmental and development programs and to establishing mechanisms for assessing the impact of environmental policies on women. However, 30 years later most countries acknowledge that they have not integrated that perspective into policy assessments. This paper provides the first systematic literature review (based on the PRISMA approach) of the impacts of climate policies on inequality from a gender perspective. The results show that although this is an emerging research area, the number of works is still very low: we find only 29 papers, most of them written in the last 4 years. There is also a clear lack of quantitative analysis; and only 5 studies provide an ex ante impact assessment. A more in depth-analysis shows that the existing analyses often use gender merely as an additional explanatory variable, but key aspects for a real gender-oriented analysis such as power relations, intersectionality and gender mainstreaming are missing. The gender perspective is typically more absent in studies led by men. If science wants to contribute to the generation of knowledge that is useful for tackling some of the greatest challenges of the 21st century, such as the transition to a socioeconomic model that is more respectful with the ecological limits of the planet and gender equality, it is important to expand knowledge in this area but also to reconnect with feminist theory.

Targeting the Effectiveness Assessment of the Emission Control Policies on the Shipping Industry

Compared to air, rail, and road transport, shipping is a more energy-efficient and environmentally friendly way to transport goods over a long distance. However, the unprecedented growth of global seaborne trade has had a significant impact on the environment. The process of shipping transportation, through exhaust gas, wastewater discharge, fuel leakage, etc., has caused very serious environmental pollution. In response to this issue, the International Maritime Organization introduced the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) Convention to regulate the discharge of pollution from ships. Given that there are few studies discussing policy effectiveness, this study comprehensively considers and reviews the implementation effectiveness of all annexed policies under the MARPOL Convention. After discussing the differences between these policies based on the implementation conditions, requirements, strictness, and scope of adoption, the empirical analysis method of time-varying differences-in-differences model is adopted to analyze the policy effectiveness of each annex. It further puts forward suggestions and references for the formulation of effective maritime policies in the future that should be targeted, comprehensive, contingency-based, and proactive. This will help design or revise policies in the shipping industry, thereby promoting the early achievement of shipping emission reduction targets and contributing to the sustainability of the shipping industry.

Analysis of the funding of social services from a spatial approach in Andalusia (Spain)

In Andalusia, Community Social Service Centres (CSSCs) are funded by regulations following demographic, geographic, economic, and social disadvantage criteria. This study aims to analyse the geographical distribution of funding per inhabitant of CSSC by catchment area in Andalusia in 2019, and to study the statistical associations between funding and a range of demographic and socioeconomic indicators. The study spatial units (n = 184) included the catchment areas of CSSCs and, in the case of intramunicipal areas in large municipalities, they were grouped at the municipal level. Spatial autocorrelation measures were used to identify spatial clusters of high/low funding rates per inhabitant. Later, nonspatial and spatial regressions were applied to search for associations with different indicators (sex ratio, ageing index, dependency index, emigration rate, immigration rate, unemployment rate, population density, and employment rate in the primary sector). The geographical distribution of the funding of social services in Andalusia was not random since the analyses identified several spatial clusters with significantly high (hot spots) and low (cold spots) funding per inhabitant (p < 0.05). The funding rates were significantly (p < 0.05) and directly associated with the ageing index and the percentage of primary sector employees, and indirectly with the proportion of foreigners in the population and the population density. The hot spots were mainly located in rural and deprived areas, while the cold spots were in urban areas. The variables related to the regulated funding distribution criteria were not fully associated with higher financing. Instead, other additional variables showed significant associations (p < 0.05), such as primary-sector workers and foreign populations. The results showed that spatial analyses may support service assessment and decision-making in social policy.

The effectiveness of Grade 3 teachers’ implementation of poetry through play pedagogies

Background: Poetry predates all other genres of literature, and it has been argued that the relationship between poetry and language is inextricable. The ability of African people to articulate their own stories was largely silenced by colonialism. Poems and lyrics have been known to create a bridge between individuals in meaningful words and songs.Aim: This article explores Grade 3 teachers’ experiences of teaching poetry and their utilisation of play pedagogies to enhance learning and make it pleasurable.Setting: Three schools in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, were purposively selected because of their rural location. The sample comprised six Grade 3 teachers who worked in these three rural primary schools. The learners in the study were using isiZulu as a language of learning and teaching.Methods: Semi-structured interviews, document analysis and non-participant observations were employed to generate the data.Results: Regardless, Grade 1 teachers know their knowledge of the value of play pedagogies in the development of young children.Conclusion: Researchers suggest that Grade 3 teachers need to align their practice and lesson plans with Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) proposals and guidelines. Moreover, play pedagogies need to be implemented and these need to be realistically aligned with allocated time frames and available resources to mitigate the severe restraints that impede effective poetry teaching as a tool for facilitating learning.Contribution: To ensure the success of all Grade 3 learners in the realm of poetry understanding and writing, it is imperative that Foundation Phase (FP) teachers align their teaching to the CAPS pedagogies to expose learners to various forms of poetry.

Life cycle thinking for the assessment of waste and circular economy policy: status and perspectives from the EU example

Life cycle thinking methods such as life cycle assessment (LCA) and costing (LCC) were originally developed to assess the performance of products and services (business-making decisions). However, they are increasingly deployed to support policy-making along the entire policy cycle, including via impact assessment (IA) of different policy options. These applications are associated with a number of challenges, mainly related to the dynamic and prospective nature of policy IA, typically forward-looking into 10–20 years ahead. This requires the application of prospective scenario analyses to develop the baseline scenario, reflecting the ‘do nothing’ into the future (business-as-usual), and the alternative scenarios, reflecting the consequences incurred by the implementation of the policy options under study. Such prospective and broadened boundary nature of policy IA challenges traditional LCA/LCC practices mostly based on retrospective, static scenarios and datasets. The present study provides an overview of recent IA studies supporting waste policy to show the state-of-the-art and the main challenges associated with the application of life cycle methods in IA, focusing on the most recent EU waste and circular economy policies. Moreover, since specific and transparent guidance on how to implement consistently these methods in policy IA is lacking, the study provides an initial guidance for application of life cycle thinking in IA drawing upon the knowledge obtained conducting waste policy IA studies. Key challenges in the field are still to be addressed, and might inspire further research to improve the application of life cycle thinking to policy assessment.

Spa(tia) – a diffusion-oriented method of territorial impact assessment

ABSTRACT In this paper we consider the options for policymakers in performing territorial impact assessment (TIA) of various policies. Hybrid methods combining stakeholder involvement with systematic statistical analysis are a good compromise between the analytical capabilities of the tool and the required time and resources needed to use it. However, the existing hybrid methods focus on the direct effects of the intervention, while neglecting the territorial diffusion of the policy outcomes. To address this gap, we propose a new method, which uses a spatial proximity matrix to incorporate diffusion effects into TIA. We discuss an example application of the new method for the ex-ante evaluation of the ‘European Funds for Western Pomerania’ programme.

Curriculum Evaluation of the Textile and Fashion Design Department of Cameroon Opportunities Industrialization Center (COIC), Buea

Purpose: Although technical and vocational education is a viable solution to unemployment and other socio-economic challenges, there is a dearth of empirical data on the perceptions of various stakeholders. To close this gap, the study proposes a case study evaluation of the program of the Textile and Fashion Design (TFD) department in Cameroon Opportunities Industrialization Center (COIC).&#x0D; Materials and Methods: Tyler’s rationale was used as the evaluation framework. The in-depth exploration proceeded in three phases. The first phase was a desk review of relevant documents. The second phase comprised of in-depth interviews with four main groups of respondents: 2 administrators, 3 trainers, 9 trainees, and 6 alumni. For each group of the respondents, an interview guide was used for data collection. The final phase was classroom observation using an observation guide. The data collected was submitted to content analysis, and then reported using both thematic and narrative techniques following the evaluation framework.&#x0D; Findings: The findings show that the TFD department is achieving its overall objective notwithstanding the challenges at the level of the entrepreneurship aspects of the objective. The program is also implemented in ways that enhance the achievement of the objectives, but the gaps in specialization, duration, and resources indicate the need for policy reviews. The assessment policy was found to be consistent with the objectives, and the stakeholder generally perceive the program in a positive light despite the challenges raised.&#x0D; Implications to Theory, Practice and Policy: Recommendations were made to close the identified gaps in the program implementation. For one thing, more needs to be done in digital visibility and sensitization. The challenges faced by the alumni indicate that more needs to be done in achieving the entrepreneurial aspect of the objective. Finally, if the “no entry requirement” policy is maintained, there might be need to consider specialization to increase quality and relevance of the program.

Distinct patterns of postoperative fever in paediatric neurosurgery patients.

Postoperative fever is a common problem following neurosurgery but data on the causes among paediatric patients is sparse. In this report, we determined the incidence, causes, and outcomes of postoperative fever in paediatric neurosurgical patients (< 18years), and contrasted the findings with an adult cohort published recently from our unit. We recruited 61 patients who underwent 73 surgeries for non-traumatic neurosurgical indications over 12months. A standard protocol was followed for the evaluation and management of postoperative fever. We prospectively collected data pertaining to operative details, daily maximal temperature, clinical features, and use of surgical drains, urinary catheters, and other adjuncts. Elevated body temperature of > 99.9 °F or 37.7°C for > 48h or associated with clinical deterioration or localising features was considered as "fever"; elevated temperature not meeting these criteria was classified as transient elevation in temperature (TET). Twenty-six patients (35.6%) had postoperative fever, more frequent than in adult patients. TET occurred in 12 patients (16.4%). The most common causes of fever were aseptic meningitis (34.6%), followed by urinary tract infections (15.4%), pyogenic meningitis, COVID-19, and wound infections. Postoperative fever was associated with significantly longer duration of hospital admission and was the commonest cause of readmission. In contrast to adults, early temperature elevations in paediatric patients may portend infectious and serious non-infectious causes of fever, including delayed presentation with aseptic meningitis, a novel association among paediatric patients. Investigation guided by clinical assessment and conservative antibiotic policy in keeping with the institutional microbiological profile provides the most appropriate strategy in managing paediatric postoperative fever.

Assessing the dynamics and impact of COVID-19 vaccination on disease spread: A data-driven approach

The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted global health, social, and economic situations since its emergence in December 2019. The primary focus of this study is to propose a distinct vaccination policy and assess its impact on controlling COVID-19 transmission in Malaysia using a Bayesian data-driven approach, concentrating on the year 2021. We employ a compartmental Susceptible-Exposed-Infected-Recovered-Vaccinated (SEIRV) model, incorporating a time-varying transmission rate and a data-driven method for its estimation through an Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) approach. While no vaccine guarantees total immunity against the disease, and vaccine immunity wanes over time, it is critical to include and accurately estimate vaccine efficacy, as well as a constant vaccine immunity decay or wane factor, to better simulate the dynamics of vaccine-induced protection over time. Based on the distribution and effectiveness of vaccines, we integrated a data-driven estimation of vaccine efficacy, calculated at 75% for Malaysia, underscoring the model's realism and relevance to the specific context of the country. The Bayesian inference framework is used to assimilate various data sources and account for underlying uncertainties in model parameters. The model is fitted to real-world data from Malaysia to analyze disease spread trends and evaluate the effectiveness of our proposed vaccination policy. Our findings reveal that this distinct vaccination policy, which emphasizes an accelerated vaccination rate during the initial stages of the program, is highly effective in mitigating the spread of COVID-19 and substantially reducing the pandemic peak and new infections. The study found that vaccinating 57–66% of the population (as opposed to 76% in the real data) with a better vaccination policy such as proposed here is able to significantly reduce the number of new infections and ultimately reduce the costs associated with new infections. The study contributes to the development of a robust and informative representation of COVID-19 transmission and vaccination, offering valuable insights for policymakers on the potential benefits and limitations of different vaccination policies, particularly highlighting the importance of a well-planned and efficient vaccination rollout strategy. While the methodology used in this study is specifically applied to national data from Malaysia, its successful application to local regions within Malaysia, such as Selangor and Johor, indicates its adaptability and potential for broader application. This demonstrates the model's adaptability for policy assessment and improvement across various demographic and epidemiological landscapes, implying its usefulness for similar datasets from various geographical regions.

Multiple paths of green and low-carbon development in industrial parks: group analysis based on the TOE framework

The green and low-carbon development of industrial parks plays an important role in promoting industrial and technological agglomeration, How to optimise their green and low-carbon development pathways is an important management question to be answered, requiring the examination of multiple path based on a histological perspective. Based on the technology–organisation–environment framework, this study selected 29 state-level economic and technological development zones (ETDZs) in China as research objects, and explored multiple sets of paths using fuzzy set qualitative comparison and necessity-contribution analysis. The study found that: 1) four promotion paths can be adopted for green low-carbon development of the zones: endogenous drive, balanced promotion, core support drive and comprehensive drive; 2) single environmental factor does not constitute a bottleneck hindering the green low-carbon development of the zones, which should be combined with the actual situation of the zones, and the balanced enhancement of the effectiveness of green and low-carbon should be realised through measures such as industrial policy, environmental risk prevention, and performance assessment of green policies. Finally, the study proposes the following policy recommendations: industrial parks should focus on the key role of environmental risk prevention, apply a combination of measures in accordance with their own realities, and appropriate external pressure can help promote green and low-carbon development.

A novel approach to work towards gender-responsive urban climate policy

In collaboration with women’s organizations in India, Indonesia, Mexico and South Africa, an approach for a novel gender assessment of urban climate policies was developed and tested. The Gender Assessment and Monitoring of Mitigation and Adaptation (GAMMA) methodology allows for an in-depth analysis of the institutional framework and the mitigation and adaptation policies of cities. Its application by the women’s organizations in 14 pilot cities led to policy recommendations on how to integrate gender equality into urban mitigation and adaptation actions. The results of a monitoring exercise show that the project has made a significant step forward in raising awareness of gender issues and gender-responsive action at the urban level. It provides civil society organizations working on climate justice with a tool to push local governments to work towards low-carbon, resilient, gender-just and inclusive cities. It can also be used by local governments for self-assessment.

Assessment of Government Liberalization Policy and the Growth in Nigeria’s Trade Industry

Following the outbreak of COVID-19 and the contraction of government revenue, it has become increasingly difficult for government to continue with “subsidy oriented” policies hence, this paper evaluates Nigeria’s liberalization policies as a major drivers of trade growth in the country. A quantitative approach was adopted in this paper. Data used in this paper were secondary data sourced from World bank indicators and Central Bank of Nigeria Statistical Bulletin (1980-2018 version). This paper used Error Correction Classical Linear Regression estimate to analyse the data. The result of the study showed that changes in the key liberalization policy variables have significant influence on output growth but not statistically significant to trade growth. Industrialization oriented policies was therefore recommended for Nigeria to actualize her dreams of being an industrialized country, a strong and competitive institution that foster a sustainable industrial sector through policy is also advised. This study adds to the limited available evidence concerning the contribution of government liberation policy on the growth of Nigeria trade sector. It stands as the first to consider trade openness, government liberation policy and the Nigeria industrial sector. &#x0D; &#x0D; Received: 18 June 2023 / Accepted: 15 February 2024 / Published: xx March 2024

From optimist to sceptical liberalism: reforging European Union foreign policy amid crises

Abstract Russia's invasion of Ukraine brought both condemnation and vindication to the European Union. EU policies were condemned for being complacent, naive and greedy. However, when European leaders conducted a coordinated response backing Ukraine, the war also vindicated the EU as a liberal project. The crisis has led to a surge in support for the EU, unprecedented cooperation across policy areas and new accession negotiations with the EU's eastern neighbours. To understand this shift, the article argues that crisis has catalysed the EU becoming a sceptical liberal actor. Sceptical liberalism is characterized by a bleak view on the trajectory of the international order, a self-critical understanding of Europe's role in it, and a willingness to intervene, including with military means, to tackle political predicaments. The transition changes EU leaders' previous optimistic liberal approach of pursuing peace and prosperity though mediation and interdependence. Distinguishing between ideals and actions, the article argues that liberal ideals remain intact, but a sceptical outlook implies different actions to pursue those ideals. The article's argument challenges longstanding scholarly debates on ‘normal versus normative power Europe’, which build on an excessively bifurcated assessment of EU foreign policy that fails to capture contemporary dynamics and the dilemmas they cause.

How curriculum and assessment policies affect the role of reading in an assessment culture: a New Zealand case study

ABSTRACT Reading assessment is a critical feature of education systems. The aim of this study is to explore reading assessment policy in the New Zealand (NZ) assessment culture. We reviewed research publications, national policy documents and test protocols on reading for year levels 6–9 (ages 9–13). We found that assessment data are broadly conceptualised and used for multiple purposes, that the representation of reading assessment data is located in an improvement-oriented environment and that the use of reading assessment for improvement purposes involves multiple actors and organisation levels. We discuss to what extent reading assessment policy supports student learning and teacher professional learning.

From project to planning: development and effectiveness of the water-draw and utilization assessment policy in China

ABSTRACT The water-draw and utilization assessment (WDUA) policy is crucial for ensuring sustainable water development and good water governance in China. It consists of the WDUA in construction projects (WDUA-CP) and WDUA in urban planning (WDUA-UP). Based on a systematic review of the WDUA policy's development, this study evaluated the WDUA policy from the perspectives of policy text and implementation effectiveness using text-mining and statistical analysis methods. The results show that the WDUA policy is generally successful and has progressed across all regions in China. Despite existing regional gaps, effectiveness will continue to grow at the current situation of implementation. This study broadens the field of inquiry into China's water policy, enhances the method for assessing global water policy, and offers a fresh viewpoint for the international water community to understand China's integrated water resources management and water governance.

Assessment of current child abuse policies in Saudi Arabia within the healthcare context: a comprehensive review

Background Global efforts to protect children from violence have been ongoing since the early 20th century. In Saudi Arabia, several policies were implemented to protect children from abuse and exploitation. Objective This review examines the current landscape of child abuse policies within the healthcare system of Saudi Arabia, evaluating the existing challenges and identifying areas for improvement. Methods This comprehensive review utilized multiple databases, including Google Scholar, Scopus, and PubMed, to identify articles relevant to child abuse, neglect, or adverse childhood experiences in Saudi Arabia. Moreover, Saudi Arabia’s governmental websites were reviewed to retrieve relevant laws and legislative documents. Results Several international agreements and domestic laws were implemented in Saudi Arabia, including the establishment of the National Family Safety Program (NFSP) (2005), Anti-trafficking in Persons Law (2009), Law for Protection from Abuse (2013), Child Protection Law (2014), Anti-Harassment Law (2018), and Juveniles’ Law (2018). Moreover, the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Development (MHRSD) oversees the implementation of these laws and provides support to abuse victims. However, despite existing legal frameworks, detecting and reporting child abuse cases in Saudi Arabia’s healthcare system faces challenges, including a lack of awareness, inadequate training, and the latest child abuse manual established in 2014. Conclusion While progress has been made, efforts are required by a multifaceted approach encompassing training healthcare providers, intersectoral collaboration, awareness campaigns, and developing a revised manual aligned with current laws in the Kingdom.

Contextual Factors Obstructing the Effective Implementation of the Curriculum and Assessment Policy in the Lesotho Education Sector

Policy implementation is the most crucial phase in the policy-making cycle. If not implemented, policy aims and objectives cannot be achieved, and the quality of education can subsequently not be improved. The Lesotho Ministry of Education (MoET) adopted the Curriculum and Assessment Policy, 2009 (CAP 2009) to localise its curriculum. With this curriculum, MoET intends to make education relevant to Basotho and improve equal and equitable access to quality education for all Basotho. However, a persistent policy gap caused by failing to implement the CAP 2009 effectively renders this curriculum ineffective. MoET now plans to replace CAP 2009 with a new curriculum called the Lesotho Basic Education Curriculum Policy (LBECP), which is intended to close the implementation gap witnessed with the CAP 2009 and counter the contextual factors that led to the failure of CAP 2009. In this article, we argue that the Lesotho education policy context obstructed the implementation of CAP 2009. We, therefore, explore certain contextual factors that negatively impacted the effective implementation of CAP 2009. We argue that the persistent policy gap regarding the implementation of CAP 2009 results from a policy process that is not sensitive to or does not reflect the unique Lesotho education context. Findings suggest that poverty, rurality, HIV/AIDS, corruption, and political instability severely hampered the effective implementation of the CAP 2009. Following this, specific recommendations are made to improve and ensure effective curriculum implementation within the Lesotho education sector.

Creating healthy eating and active environments in early learning settings: protocol of the CHEERS eHealth intervention study.

Early childhood educators through their daily interactions with children, play a central role in shaping young children's health behaviors. Given their influential role, early childhood educators are often targeted in interventions aiming at enhancing their nutrition and physical activity practices. This paper presents the design of the CHEERS eHealth program to improve nutrition and physical activity practices within Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) centers. The study has a longitudinal quasi-experimental design with recruitment of ECECs across Alberta Canada. ECEC intervention group educators complete 12 weekly online nutrition and physical activity modules and participate in weekly communities of practice sessions to discuss practical applications within their centers. Outcome assessments are scheduled at baseline (T1), mid-point at 5 months (T2), and end of program after 10 months (T3). Outcome measures include the Creating Healthy Eating and Active Environments survey (CHEERS), Mindful Eating Questionnaire (MEQ), Canadian Behavior, Attitude and Nutrition Knowledge Survey (C-BANKS 2.0), Physical Literacy Knowledge, Attitude, Self-Efficacy, and Behavior (PLKASB-ECE), the Environment and Policy Assessment and Observation (EPAO) derived variables, and an objective measure of children's physical activity using ActiGraph GT3X accelerometers. Linear mixed model analyses will be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention. Qualitative assessments comprise exit interviews and open-response questions embedded within the educational modules. Preliminary baseline data from the 2019 cohort indicate no statistically significant differences between the intervention and control groups for the primary outcome variables, except age. Educators' personal nutrition-related knowledge, attitude and behaviors were positively associated with their self-assessments of the nutrition environment and practices in ECECs. A significant correlation was observed between educators' self-reported physical activity practices and observed activity practices. The CHEERS survey Food Served subscale showed a positive correlation with the objective measures of EPAO-Foods Provided and Nutrition Policy subdomains. We propose that this eHealth intervention would be an effective scaling up approach to enhancing the nutrition and physical activity environments of ECECs by fostering improved nutrition and physical activity-related knowledge, attitudes, and adherence to best practices which will potentially lead to improved outcomes for children in their care.

Affirmative Action Policies in Higher Education in Brazil: Outcomes and Future Challenges

This article presents the results of broad research developed by a group of Brazilian scholars to make an assessment of affirmative action policies in admissions to higher education in Brazil, namely the quota legislation in place since 2012, which reserves places for lower-income, Afro-Brazilians and indigenous students in federal universities. The research has been developed through a combination of methods including analysis of secondary data, case studies in six federal universities, and interviews with university leadership and faculty members. The article presents the main results of the study, including the effect of quota legislation in diversifying the profile of higher education students in the last decade. It shows that a significant proportion of Afro-Brazilian students have been able to access good-quality higher education because of this legislation. The article concludes by presenting some challenges faced by quota students in federal universities, especially related to student support policies and a sense of belonging. It also presents recommendations to improve these policies.

Conceptualizing Educational Comparability in Distributed Health Professions Education: A Scoping Review.

This study aimed to create greater clarity about the current understanding and formulate a model of how educational comparability has been used in the literature to inform practice. The authors conducted a literature search of 9 online databases, seeking articles published on comparability in distributed settings in health professions education before August 2021, with an updated search conducted in May 2023. Using a structured scoping review approach, 2 reviewers independently screened articles for eligibility with inclusion criteria and extracted key data. All authors participated in the descriptive analysis of the extracted data. Twenty-four articles published between 1987 and 2021 met the inclusion criteria. Most articles were focused on medical education programs (n = 21) and located in North America (n = 18). The main rationale for discussing comparability was accreditation. These articles did not offer definitions or discussions about what comparability means. The program logic model was used as an organizing framework to synthesize the literature on practices that schools undertake to facilitate and demonstrate comparability in the design (inputs), implementation (activities), and evaluation (outcomes) of distributed education. Inputs include common learning objectives, identical assessment tools and policies, governance models that enable clear communication, and reporting structure that is supported by technological infrastructure. Activities include faculty planning meetings and faculty development training. Outcomes include student experiences and academic performances. This study demonstrated that a more complex understanding of the dynamics of educational processes and practices is required to better guide the practice of educational comparability within distributed education programs. In addition to highlighting the need to develop an accepted definition of educational comparability, further elucidation of the underlying dynamics among input, activities, and outcomes would help to better determine what drivers should be prioritized when considering educational change with attention to context within distributed education.