Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization Research Articles

Трансправительственное сетевое управление и соконкуренция в сфере управления космическим пространством в Азиатском регионе

With the facilitation of globalization and technological advancements, the growing complexity of global issues has expanded the spatiotemporal scope of their impact. In international relations, sub-units beneath the primary actors – states – have emerged as critical actors with a demand for effective and real-time responses to global affairs. Transgovernmental network governance, operating by the sub-units in a decentralized and centrifugal architecture, has emerged as a diverse and flexible governance model that transcends interstate interactions. Simultaneously, international regimes have expanded based on small-scale cooperation. When niches exist in specific issue areas, major powers have initiated the construction of transgovernmental network governance, positioning themselves as pivotal actors. In the realm of space governance in Asia, China and Japan have each established transgovernmental network governance mechanisms promoting capacity building and cooperation centred around themselves – the Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO) and the Asia-Pacific Regional Space Agency Forum (APRSAF). Case studies of the aforementioned organizations further reveal that when plural transgovernmental networks operate within the same issue area, the governance landscape takes on a derived form of coexistence between competition and cooperation, which is the transgovernmental network governance of “co-competition.” Across multiple analytical levels, such characteristics indicate a flexible space of proliferation, expansion, and transformation

The Importance of ALCE's Role as a Political Actor Rather Than a Coordinator of Regional Space Activities

The Latin American and Caribbean Space Agency (ALCE) was formally created in 2020 with the ALCE Agreement signed by 19 countries from the region. ALCE can be considered a major step towards regional integration in the space sector, driven by its members' political willingness. Nevertheless, the integration process does not finish with the signature of the agreement; it's just the start. There are many levels of integration based on previous regional integration case studies such as Asia's Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO), African Space Agency (ASA), and most notably the most advanced European Union/European Space Agency (ESA) case. As ALCE is starting to construct a regional space ambition, the timing demands from its members how far in the integration process they want to go. From an intergovernmental organisation that only decides on cooperative technical space activities to a fullyintegrated organisation with its own regulatory framework enacting a regional space policy and a regional space programme.Based on the ALCE Agreement, the organisation seems to have only a cooperative role as an intermediary that fosters technical cooperation without political power. This article claims that instead ALCE should go further and seek progressively full integration by shaping a coherent regional space policy by providing the organisation with the political capacity to shape a regional space policy and space programme that addresses the needs of the region in the short-term future.The article presents, firstly, the political willingness of the two forerunners of the region, Mexico and Argentina, to shape regional integration and an overview of space activities in the region. Secondly, APSCO, ASA and Europe integration/ESA cases are introduced to understand levels of integration for ALCE. Thirdly, it is explained that ALCE's benefits of higher integration, notably spillovers and current regional space activities, will make sure Latin America catches up in the next phase of global space activity.

Article: Space Dispute Settlement in Asia in the Context of the Belt & Road Initiative: An Appraisal from China’s Perspective

Conducting a space cooperation program in the context of the Belt & Road (B&R) initiative provides China opportunities to further extend the scale of space cooperation in Asia and break through the current predicament of the Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO). A more comprehensive mechanism to address the potential state-to-state and commercial space disputes is essential. To efficiently avoid and resolve disputes among the Member States, APSCO needs to improve the ‘fair return’ principle and the dispute settlement arrangement contained in its Convention. As to conflicts between APSCO and the non-Member States, dispute settlement clauses are obliged to be reached between APSCO and China. For commercial disputes, China should establish a specialized arbitration branch as a constituent of the B&R comprehensive dispute settlement mechanism. Disputes arising in space infrastructure investments need to be treated separately. For this reason, a special branch for settling investor-state disputes should be created under the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) as advocated in this article. B&R Initiative, B&R-SIC, Space Disputes in Asia, Asian Space Cooperation, APSCO, Commercial Space Activities

Capacity building in regional space cooperation: Asia-pacific space cooperation organization

The increasing gap in the space capabilities of different countries has led to the need for capacity building in modern times. Space capacity building of countries without or with limited space capacity via international cooperation with advanced spacefaring nations is a good practice towards intragenerational equity among all spacefaring countries, and between spacefaring and non-spacefaring countries at the same period of time. A case study is used here to show the current situation of the Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO) and its member states that are associated with their space capacity building. The study finds that neither the satellite technology development model developed by Wood and Weigel (2011) nor the model developed by Ercan and Kale (2017) is a good fit for the development of space capability in all of the developing countries. Therefore, using the APSCO member states as a case study may offer guidelines towards the space capacity building of other developing countries. Moreover, an in-depth analysis of the merits and flaws of APSCO’s capacity building programs through comparing them with similar projects carried out by the European Space Agency (ESA), the Asia-Pacific Regional Space Agency Forum (APRSAF) and some other countries is conducive to providing some references for regional cooperation in the field of space capacity building. While international space law and the APSCO Convention can provide the general principles for capacity building activities under the framework of APSCO, they are only relevant to the development of scientific and technological capacities for space and human resources rather than organizational development and legal frameworks. Some international soft laws can likewise provide guidance for the capacity building activities of APSCO and its member states in the areas of international direct television broadcasting, remote sensing and cooperative way. To enhance its and its member states’ space capabilities, APSCO, in the context of space commercialization and maintaining the long-term sustainability of outer space activities (LTSOSA), should establish a comprehensive internal regime that addresses scientific and technological capacity building for space, human resources, organizational development and legal frameworks, a flexible regime for international cooperation with other developed spacefaring nations and international organizations with relevant technical capabilities and an internal research center for space law, and actively expand its membership by embracing other economically or technologically developed spacefaring nations in the Asia-Pacific region.

China, Japan, and the Governance of Space: prospects for competition and cooperation

AbstractChina and Japan are among the world’s top space powers, with significant technical competence in both conventional and ‘newspace’ capabilities. Since the early 1990s, each country has also taken a keen interest in shaping the governance of outer space activities. But they have done so in remarkably different ways, calling into question Asian states’ supposed preferences for soft and informal institutions. Japan has led the Asia-Pacific Regional Space Agency Forum, involving both state and nonstate participants, which is guided by a set of principles. China has opted for a high-profile formal intergovernmental design, the Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization, with a Convention and all the trappings of a formal organizational structure. This article assesses the activities of China and Japan in the new space race, discusses how and why the design of their space governance differs, and reflects on prospects for competition and cooperation.

Moving Towards a Potential Conflict Resolution Mechanism Under the APSCO Framework: A Proposed Legal Mechanism

Competition among countries has evolved from just on Earth but into space as space technology and space power is a key attribute in the world today. Today space technology has spread, due to the enormous development, into every sector of life in the Earth for the benefit of mankind. Every country has the ambition to be a part of the space initiative. Asia Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO) is an organization that tries to promote space activities through cooperation in the Asia Pacific region. This paper attempts to explore the nature and categories of potential conflict that may arise under the APSCO framework program. Furthermore, it also endeavors to establish an effective and better dispute settlement mechanism under the overall APSCO framework. Finally, this paper introduces the institutional framework and working procedures of the arbitration body for future smooth cooperation and space exploration by APSCO.

Introduction to APOSOS project: 15 cm aperture electro-optical telescopes to track space objects

Asia-Pacific ground-based Optical Space object Observation System (APOSOS) is an international cooperation project, which is initiated and supported by Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO). Currently, APOSOS consists of three Observation Nodes in Pakistan, Peru and Iran, and a Data and Operation Management Center in National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Each Observation Node is equipped with a dedicated 15 cm aperture refracting telescope, which is capable of real-time astrometric data reduction. APOSOS aims to develop a tracking network of space object to acquire accurate astrometric measurements of space objects owned by APSCO member states. In this paper, we present an overview of APOSOS’s design and development. The APOSOS’s detecting capability of tracking a space object is darker than 12m in LEO or 16m in GEO, the size of which is equivalent to a diameter of 10-cm class in LEO or meter class in GEO respectively. A parametric estimation model is setup to profile APOSOS’s capability in different tracking missions, which is verified by experimental observations. Preliminary results of tracking observations of SLR satellites showed that RMS of APOSOS astrometric measurements in RA/DEC is better than 5″.

Magnetic Simulator Testbed for APSCO Student Small Satellite Project

The Student Small Satellite (SSS) is a university project of Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO), composed by one microsatellite (SSS-1) and two 3U CubeSats (SSS-2A and SSS-2B). Regarding SSS-1 and SSS-2A satellites, the active 3-axis magnetic control strategy has been applied in the Attitude Determination and Control System (ADCS). In this paper, the necessary study for the development of a Magnetic Simulator Testbed for the SSS-1 and SSS-2A satellites was performed using one pairs of Helmholtz coils for each axis of rotation (X, Y, Z). Each pair of coil can generate a sufficiently large and stable magnetic field that simulate the Earth’s magnetic field but with a reliable level of accuracy, to perform the ADCS test on the satellites. Matlab software was used to generate the propagation of the orbit for the satellites, to calculate the Earth’s magnetic field around that orbit and simulate a pair of Helmholtz coil in each axis of rotation to reproduce the Earth’s magnetic field using the Biot-Savart Law. The results obtained for propagation of the orbit, calculation of terrestrial magnetic field and reproduction of the magnetic field through the Magnetic Simulator Testbed, were very close to the results obtained in important researches previously consulted, giving reliability to this research and allowing an analysis to determine the real physical size that Magnetic Testbed should have. The size determined, is very close to what was expected, allowing to conclude the reliability and viability of the development of the Magnetic Testbed for APSCO SSS Project.

Asian Space Cooperation and Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization: An Appraisal of Critical Legal Challenges in the Belt and Road Space Initiative Context

The Belt and Road (B&R) initiative has been put forward by China as a comprehensive and multifaceted plan that also touches on the space industry. One significant project aimed by the B&R framework is to establish the B&R Space Information Corridor (B&R-SIC). The Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO), which was initially created by China as the platform to lead Asian space cooperation, has been recognized as a qualified participant of the B&R-SIC to co-build relevant programs and provide services. However, the existing legal mechanisms both internal and external to APSCO are insufficient to ensure the progress of its activities involving B&R space projects. It is necessary to explore a legal arrangement between APSCO and the responsible administrations of B&R space projects, at the same time of improving the legal framework of APSCO itself. More comprehensive implementation of the “fair return” principle could play an important role because it is helpful to generate a sustainable cooperation mechanism by equally respecting all member states' contributions. Also, a legal framework to accommodate increased commercial activities of APSCO will be beneficial.

Indonesia Membership on Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO): Cost and Benefit Analysis

Indonesia with seven other countries, namely Bangladesh, China, Iran, Mongolia, Pakistan, Peru, and Thailand are the signatory countries of APSCO Convention, on October 28th, 2005. APSCO is space coopeation organization outside the United Nations system for the Asia Pacific region, initiated by the People’s Republic of China. To date, from the eight signatory countries, only Indonesia has not ratified yet and has not become a full member of APSCO. This paper examines cost and benefit of the Indonesia membership on APSCO. The methods used are quantitative and qualitative method. While the analysis used approaches related to contribution of cost to provided and benefits to be received by Indonesia as well as the national interest mentioned in Presidential Decree No. 64/1999 on Indonesian Membership and Indonesian Government Contributions to International Organizations. From the study, it was found that by ratifying the Convention and following APSCO activities optimally, the benefits will be receive by Indonesia greater than contribution given to APSCO. Similarry, the joining of Indonesia in APSCO will also provide substansial benefit for the national interest, especially for politic, economic, international peace and security, humanity, and others as well as enhancing better relationship among countries in the Asia-Pacific region.

Maintaining Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities: Creation of Regulatory Framework to Guide the Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization and Selected Legal Issues

This article provides a summary on the origins of the concept of the long-term sustainability of outer space activities (LTSOSA) by reviewing previous discussions related to the definition of this concept with the conclusion that the LTSOSA is in fact derived from the concept of sustainable development and comprises 5 legal elements, including the principles of intergenerational equity, sustainable use, intragenerational equity, integration, and peaceful purposes. In this regard, the LTSOSA to some extent has been already reflected in international environmental law and international space law. This article, therefore, argues that to enhance the LTSOSA, the Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO), which is a regional intergovernmental cooperative organization, has to embrace an LTSOSA regime because of its own interests, the need to fulfill its international obligations that have been imposed by international environmental law and international space law, and the need for regional efforts, which can complement both national and international efforts. Finally, it is concluded that the APSCO should establish internal legal regulations that address issues related to the LTSOSA, at least those that take into consideration space debris mitigation, space weather, space traffic management, capacity building (especially the transfer of space-oriented environmentally sound technology), and radio frequency interference.

North west cape-induced electron precipitation and theoretical simulation**Supported by the China Seismo-Electromagnetic Satellite Mission Ground-Based Verification Project of the Administration of Science, Technology, and Industry for National Defense and Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization Project (APSCO-SP/PM-EARTHQUAKE).

Enhancement of the electron fluxes in the inner radiation belt, which is induced by the powerful North West Cape (NWC) very-low-frequency (VLF) transmitter, have been observed and analyzed by several research groups. However, all of the previous publications have focused on NWC-induced > 100-keV electrons only, based on observations from the Detection of Electro-Magnetic Emissions Transmitted from Earthquake Regions (DEMETER) and the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) satellites. Here, we present flux enhancements with 30–100-keV electrons related to NWC transmitter for the first time, which were observed by the GOES satellite at night. Similar to the 100–300-keV precipitated-electron behavior, the low energy 30–100-keV electron precipitation is primarily located east of the transmitter. However, the latter does not drift eastward to the same extent as the former, possibly because of the lower electron velocity. The 30–100-keV electrons are distributed in the L = 1.8–2.1 L-shell range, in contrast to the 100–300-keV electrons which are at L = 1.67–1.9. This is consistent with the perspective that the energy of the VLF-wave-induced electron flux enhancement decreases with higher L-shell values. We expand upon the rationality of the simultaneous enhancement of the 30–100- and 100–300-keV electron fluxes through comparison with the cyclotron resonance theory for the quasi-linear wave-particle interaction. In addition, we interpret the asymmetry characteristics of NWC electric power distribution in north and south hemisphere by ray tracing model. Finally, we present considerable discussion and show that good agreement exists between the observation of satellites and theory.

The Way Forward for Promoting Awareness of Space Law in Asia: A Proposal for Institutional Capacity Building

International cooperation in outer space affairs has always been considered vital to the development of space activities. Such cooperation happens in different levels and different areas. Regional cooperation is especially meaningful to the regions concerned. We have witnessed important developments of space cooperation in Asia in the last few years. However, the cooperation so far is largely limited to technological aspects. We urgently need to see the cooperation in promoting awareness of space law in this region. This article proposes that the establishment of the Asia-Pacific Space Law Center, modeling on the European Center for Space Law, could fill the gap and play an important role in the promotion and education of space law in Asia. Nevertheless, in view of the current situation in the region, we may need to adopt the second best approach, that is, to establish a section within the AsiaPacific Space Cooperation Organization solely dealing with promoting regional cooperation for space law.

Design of Computer Communication and Network in APOSOS Project

Asia-Pacific Optical Satellite Observation System (APOSOS) is based on members of Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO). Its aim is to develop a regional or even global satellite tracking system basically composed of optical trackers. The system will be used to track objects of interest or space-debris for the safety of spacecraft launch mission or the intactness of operational satellites. APOSOS is composed of Asia-Pacific optical satellite observation center, APSCO member state node, sub-node and observation telescope. Asia-Pacific optical satellite observation center manage the whole observation network. Every member state node answers for the organization of observation with their country’s facility according to the observation plan released by observation center. The sub-node transmits observational data to corresponding member state node first. Then the member state node transmits the data summarized to the observation center. This paper will briefly introduce the APOSOS project first and present the design of computer communication and network in APOSOS project in detail.

Chinese Practice in Public International Law: 2006 (III)

Continued from Part II published last year, this part of the Survey covers materials reflecting Chinese practice in 2006 relating to: XI. Outer Space Law (Definition and Delimitation of Outer Space; Draft Protocol on Matters Specific to Space Assets to the Convention on International Interests in Mobile Equipment; The Status and Application of Five UN Treaties on Outer Space; Practice of States and International Organizations in Registering Space Objects; The Establishment of the Disaster Management International Space Coordination Organization; The Policy of Peaceful Use of Outer Space; The Cooperative Approach to the Peaceful Use of Outer Space; The Convention of Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization); XII. International Law on Diplomatic and Consular Relation (Preconditions for the Establishment of Diplomatic Relation; Vienna Convention on the Consular Relations; Diplomatic Protection and Consular Assistance); XIII. International Criminal Law (Universal Jurisdiction in Absentia; Treaty and Judicial Practice on Extradition and Criminal Judicial Assistance; The “East Turkistan” Terrorists in Guantanamo Bay; The LAI Cheong Sing (LAI Changxing) Case in Canada; The Position Towards Tokyo Trial; Illegal Migrants; Trafficking of Persons; Anti-Corruption); XIV. International Law on Environment (Environment and Development; Climate Change; Dam-building on International Rivers; Songhuajiang River Pollution Accident; Tropical Rain Forest in Southeast Asia; Animal Fur Trade; Auction of Dinosaur Egg); XV. International Organization (United Nations; World Health Organization; Shanghai Cooperation Organization); XVI. International Economic Law (International Trade Law; International Protection of Intellectual Property Rights; International Financial Law); XVII. International Law on Energy (Energy and Development; Energy Policy); XVIII. International Law on Natural Disaster (Tsunami Warning System; International Humanitarian Donation and Assistance); XIX. International Law on Health (The Issue of SARS; the Issue of Avian and Human Pandemic Influenza).

Chinese Practice in Public International Law: 2006 (II)

Continued from Part II published last year, this part of the Survey covers materials reflecting Chinese practice in 2006 relating to: XI. Outer Space Law (Definition and Delimitation of Outer Space; Draft Protocol on Matters Specific to Space Assets to the Convention on International Interests in Mobile Equipment; The Status and Application of Five UN Treaties on Outer Space; Practice of States and International Organizations in Registering Space Objects; The Establishment of the Disaster Management International Space Coordination Organization; The Policy of Peaceful Use of Outer Space; The Cooperative Approach to the Peaceful Use of Outer Space; The Convention of Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization); XII. International Law on Diplomatic and Consular Relation (Preconditions for the Establishment of Diplomatic Relation; Vienna Convention on the Consular Relations; Diplomatic Protection and Consular Assistance); XIII. International Criminal Law (Universal Jurisdiction in Absentia; Treaty and Judicial Practice on Extradition and Criminal Judicial Assistance; The ''East Turkistan'' Terrorists in Guantanamo Bay; The LAI Cheong Sing (LAI Changxing) Case in Canada; The Position Towards Tokyo Trial; Illegal Migrants; Trafficking of Persons; Anti-Corruption); XIV. Inter- national Law on Environment (Environment and Development; Climate Change; Dam-building on International Rivers; Songhuajiang River Pollution Accident; Tro- pical Rain Forest in Southeast Asia; Animal Fur Trade; Auction of Dinosaur Egg); XV. International Organization (United Nations; World Health Organization; Shanghai Cooperation Organization); XVI. International Economic Law (International Trade Law; International Protection of Intellectual Property Rights; International Financial Law); XVII. International Law on Energy (Energy and Development; Energy Policy); XVIII. International Law on Natural Disaster (Tsunami Warning System; Inter- national Humanitarian Donation and Assistance); XIX. International Law on Health (The Issue of SARS; the Issue of Avian and Human Pandemic Influenza).