Ash Emissions Research Articles

Comparison of Fine Ash Emissions Generated from Biomass and Coal Combustion and Valuation of Predictive Furnace Deposition Indices: A Review

To address important ash-related issues associated with burning solid biomass fuels for power generation, this paper reviews results of studies performed at the Northeastern University (NU) Combustion and Air Pollution laboratory and elsewhere under well-characterized conditions. It compares the physical and chemical characteristics of fine ash emissions generated from the combustion of pulverized biomasses to those from pulverized coals, since biomass is considered as a substitute fuel for coal in power generation, and assesses their furnace surface deposition propensities. Comparisons show that combustion of some biomasses may generate disproportionally higher emissions of submicron ash particles than combustion of coals (0.03–1.1 versus 0.04–0.06 kg/GJ, respectively). The high submicron emissions of biomass are problematic, as conventional particulate control devices have low collection efficiencies for such small particles. Moreover, the chemical composition of submicron particles of biomass typically contain large amounts of alkalis (potassium and sodium), chlorine, sulfur and, often, phosphorous, whereas those collected from combustion of coal contain large amounts of silicon, aluminum, iron, and sulfur. The composition of biomass ashes renders them more amenable to deposition on furnace surfaces, as calculations based on published empirical surface deposition indices show. These calculations, as well as experiences elsewhere, indicate that the slagging and, particularly, the fouling deposition prospects of most biomasses are significantly higher than those of coals.

Dynamics and tephra dispersal of Violent Strombolian eruptions at Vesuvius: insights from field data, wind reconstruction and numerical simulation of the 1906 event

Mt. Vesuvius is one of the most studied volcanoes in the world and its proximity to an extremely populated area makes it also one of the most threatening. Violent Strombolian (VS) events have occurred in the most recent history of the volcano, and they are the type most likely to occur in case of reactivation of the volcano in the near future. In order to investigate the dynamics and hazard of this type of eruption, we performed new field and laboratory work and numerical simulations of plume dynamics, fallout and tephra dispersal associated with such eruptions. Attention was specifically focused on the 1906 eruption, a recent and well-studied VS event. Based on new field analyses and historical observations, we reconstructed the temporal evolution of eruption source conditions during the event. The reconstructed explosive phase of the eruption is inferred to have been 8 days long and characterized by two distinct stages: a former short and intense period with sustained convective plume fed by powerful lava fountains (20 h) followed by a prolonged and less intense period of ash emission (172 h). The total grain-size distributions for both phases, used as inputs to the model, were obtained by field work and laboratory analyses. Based on these new volcanological data and reconstruction of wind field direction and intensity, partially derived from historical sources, the 1906 event was numerically simulated and results compared to deposit distributions. The modelling outcomes for the ash emission phase provide a better agreement with the measured tephra mass load for a simulation run in which ash aggregation (described by the models of Cornell et al. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 17:89–109, 1983, and Biass et al. Nat Hazard Earth Syst Sci 14:2265–2287, 2014) is specifically taken into account, confirming the importance of this process during tephra dispersal. The aggregation model that best fits the simulated results to the measured ground loadings has 80 % of particles Φ ≥ 4 that aggregate uniformly in the range Φ = −1 to 3. Two additional simulations of a VS event were carried out by using meteorological data of two specific periods to exemplify weather’s potential on impacts of such eruptions, particularly tephra loading, on the surrounding areas. The model outcomes clearly highlight the major effects of differences in local meteorology on plume dynamics and ash dispersal and the key role of wind shear in determining the cumulative thickness of ground deposits. Results also show that, due to the long duration of this kind of eruption and the large variability in zonal winds at this latitude, ash dispersal and fallout from VS events at Vesuvius represent a probable hazard for all of the territory near Vesuvius, including the city of Naples, where cumulative tephra loadings might reach critical thresholds for roof collapse and infrastructure damage.

New technology and application of brick making with coal fly ash

China has ranked first in the coal fly ash emission in the world. The multipurpose use of the fly ash from power plant waste is always an important topic for the Chinese environmental protection, which has drawn the concern of the government, scientific research departments, manufacturing enterprises and industry experts. This paper introduces an experimental research on how to recycle fly ash effectively, a kind of new technology of making bricks by which fly ash content could be amounted to 50–80 %. The article introduces raw materials of fly ash brick, production process and key control points. It introduces how to change the technical parameters of the existing brick-making mechanical device, optimize the parameters combination and improve the device performance. High-content fly ash bricks are manufactured, which selects wet fly ash from power plants, adding aggregate with reasonable ratio and additives with reasonable dosage, and do the experimental research on manufactured products for properties, production technology and selection about technology parameters of production equipment. All indexes of strength grade, freezing-thawing resisting, and other standards of the studied bricks reached the national standards for building materials industry.

Improvements on Near Real Time Detection of Volcanic Ash Emissions for Emergency Monitoring with Limited Satellite Bands

<div class="page" title="Page 1"><div class="layoutArea"><div class="column"><p><span>Quantifying volcanic ash emissions syneruptively is an important task for the global aviation community. However, due to the near real time nature of volcano monitoring, many parameters important for accurate ash mass estimates cannot be obtained easily. Even when using the best possible estimates of those parameters, uncertainties associated with the ash masses remain high, especially if the satellite data is only available in the traditional 10.8 and 12.0 μm bands. To counteract this limitation, we developed a quantitative comparison between the ash extents in satellite and model data. The focus is the manual cloud edge definition based on the available satellite reverse absorption (RA) data as well as other knowledge like pilot reports or ground-based observations followed by an application of the Volcanic Ash Retrieval on the defined subset with an RA threshold of 0 K. This manual aspect, although subjective to the experience of the observer, can show a significant improvement as it provides the ability to highlight ash that otherwise would be obscured by meteorological clouds or, by passing over different surfaces with unaccounted temperatures, might be lost entirely and thus remains undetectable for an automated satellite approach. We show comparisons to Volcanic Ash Transport and Dispersion models and outline a quantitative match as well as percentages of overestimates based on satellite or dispersion model data which can be converted into a level of reliability for near real time volcano monitoring. </span></p></div></div></div>

Radionuclides in the soil around the largest coal-fired power plant in Serbia: radiological hazard, relationship with soil characteristics and spatial distribution.

Primordial radionuclides, (238)U, (232)Th and (40)K were determined in soil samples collected at two depths (0-10 and 10-20cm) in the vicinity of the largest coal-fired power plant in Serbia, and their spatial distribution was analysed using ordinary kriging. Mean values of activity concentrations for these depths were 50.7Bqkg(-1) for (238)U, 48.7Bqkg(-1) for (232)Th and 560Bqkg(-1) for (40)K. Based on the measured activity concentrations, the radiological hazard due to naturally occurring radionuclides in soil was assessed. The value of the mean total absorbed dose rate was 76.3nGyh(-1), which is higher than the world average. The annual effective dose due to these radionuclides ranged from 51.4 to 114.2μSv. Applying cluster analysis, correlations between radionuclides and soil properties were determined. The distribution pattern of natural radionuclides in the environment surrounding the coal-fired power plant and their enrichment in soil at some sampling sites were in accordance with dispersion models of fly ash emissions. From the results obtained, it can be concluded that operation of the coal-fired power plant has no significant negative impact on the surrounding environment with regard to the content of natural radionuclides.

Stratospheric volcanic ash emissions from the 13 February 2014 Kelut eruption

AbstractMount Kelut (Indonesia) erupted explosively around 15:50 UT on 13 February 2014 sending ash and gases into the stratosphere. Satellite ash retrievals and dispersion transport modeling are combined within an inversion framework to estimate the volcanic ash source term and to study ash transport. The estimated source term suggests that most of the ash was injected to altitudes of 16–17 km, in agreement with space‐based lidar data. Modeled ash concentrations along the flight track of a commercial aircraft that encountered the ash cloud indicate that it flew under the main ash cloud and encountered maximum ash concentrations of 9 ± 3 mg m−3, mean concentrations of 2 ± 1 mg m−3over a period of 10–11 min of the flight, giving a dosage of 1.2 ± 0.3 g s m−3. Satellite data could not be used directly to observe the ash cloud encountered by the aircraft, whereas inverse modeling revealed its presence.

Sources, Vertical Fluxes and Accumulation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Sediments from the Mandovi Estuary, west Coast of India

The Mandovi estuary is highly influenced by mining and tourism related activities in the centralwest coast of India. Vertical fluxes and accumulation of petroleum hydrocarbons (PHCs) in three sedimentcores (D1, C1 and OG) from the Mandovi estuary were assessed using Ultra-Violet Fluorescence (UVF)spectroscopy. The range of PHCs values in estuarine sediments varied from 5.4 to 12.34 μg/g Enrichment ofPHCs values in the upper parts of three sediment cores were mostly derived from terrestrial and marinerelated sources including petrogenic (discharge of land based effluents and petroleum products), pyrogenic(emission of fly ash from industries and vehicles and combustion of petrol from ore-filled barges, boats andships) and biogenic (mangrove vegetation along the banks of the estuary) sources. The significant positiverelationship between mud (silt + clay) and PHCs unveiled that high specific surface of area of mud contentraise the level of petroleum hydrocarbons. Cluster analysis was used to discriminate the sediment samplesbased on their degree of contamination. Values of PHCs in the upper part of sediment cores were distinctlyhigher than the background but were lower than those found in the Thane creek, west coast India (7.6–42.8μg/g) and off Chennai, east coast of India (1.8 – 39.72 μg/g). This baseline PHCs data can be used for regularecological monitoring and effective management for the mining and tourism related activities in the Mandoviestuary.

Assessing hazards to aviation from sulfur dioxide emitted by explosive Icelandic eruptions

AbstractVolcanic eruptions take place in Iceland about once every 3 to 5 years. Ash emissions from these eruptions can cause significant disruption to air traffic over Europe and the North Atlantic as is evident from the 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is also emitted by volcanoes, but there are no criteria to define when airspace is considered hazardous or nonhazardous. However, SO2 is a well‐known ground‐level pollutant that can have detrimental effects on human health. We have used the United Kingdom Met Office's NAME (Numerical Atmospheric‐dispersion Modelling Environment) model to simulate SO2 mass concentrations that could occur in European and North Atlantic airspace for a range of hypothetical explosive eruptions in Iceland with a probability to occur about once every 3 to 5 years. Model performance was evaluated for the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull summit eruption against SO2 vertical column density retrievals from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument and in situ measurements from the United Kingdom Facility for Airborne Atmospheric Measurements research aircraft. We show that at no time during the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption did SO2 mass concentrations at flight altitudes violate European air quality standards. In contrast, during a hypothetical short‐duration explosive eruption similar to Hekla in 2000 (emitting 0.2 Tg of SO2 within 2 h, or an average SO2 release rate 250 times that of Eyjafjallajökull 2010), simulated SO2 concentrations are greater than 1063 µg/m3 for about 48 h in a small area of European and North Atlantic airspace. By calculating the occurrence of aircraft encounters with the volcanic plume of a short‐duration eruption, we show that a 15 min or longer exposure of aircraft and passengers to concentrations ≥500 µg/m3 has a probability of about 0.1%. Although exposure of humans to such concentrations may lead to irritations to the eyes, nose and, throat and cause increased airway resistance even in healthy individuals, the risk is very low. However, the fact that volcanic ash and sulfur species are not always collocated and that passenger comfort could be compromised might be incentives to provide real‐time information on the presence or absence of volcanic SO2. Such information could aid aviation risk management during and after volcanic eruptions.

Tephrostratigraphy and eruptive history of post-caldera stage of Toya Volcano, Hokkaido, northern Japan

A detailed tephrostratigraphy of Toya Volcano in Hokkaido, northern Japan has been constructed to evaluate the post-caldera eruptive history of the volcano. The tephrostratigraphic sequence preserved above the Toya ignimbrite reaches a total thickness of 8m southeast of the caldera. After the caldera formation (115–112ka), there was a long quiescent period of more than 60kayears. The first post-caldera activity started with Nakajima Osarugawa pumice-fall deposit (Nj-Os) inside the caldera at 48ka. Eruptive activity at Nakajima Volcano resumed at 30ka with Nakajima Sekinai pumice-fall deposit (Nj-Sk), and was followed by continuous emission of fine ash including abundant accretionary lapilli. Soon after the Nakajima pyroclastic eruption Usu Volcano began its activity with discharges of basaltic ash and scoria (forming the Usu prehistoric tephra) and extrusion of homogeneous lavas namely Usu somma lava, resulting in the formation of the initial volcanic edifice. Subsequently, a large sector collapse occurred between 30 and 20ka that emplaced the Zenkoji debris avalanche with little break after the formation of the initial Usu volcanic edifice. After the sector collapse, the volcano remained dormant for about 20–30kayears. Eruptive activity at Usu Volcano resumed in 1663AD with the most explosive plinian eruption in the post-caldera stage of Toya Volcano. Since then, seven eruptions have been recorded in 1769, 1822, 1853, 1910, 1943–1945, 1977–1978 and 2000 at multi-decadal interval. Total tephra volume during the post-caldera stage is estimated at about 0.9km3 (dense rock equivalent: DRE), whereas total lava volume is calculated at about 2.3km3. Therefore, the average magma discharge rate during the post-caldera stage of Toya Volcano is estimated at about 0.03km3/ky, which is one or two order smaller than those of other Quaternary volcanoes in Japan.

Innovative design solutions for small-scale domestic boilers: Combustion improvements using a CFD-based mathematical model

A CFD-based model has been developed for predicting performance of a domestic central heating boiler fired with solid fuels. The model does not require a priori distinction between the fixed-bed region and the free-board region and this is a unique feature. The model is used to improve both the design and operation of the boiler.Perfecting the boiler design, resulting in reduced CO and fly ash emissions, can be achieved by repositioning of the deflector, redirection of air supply, as well as reshaping the combustion chamber.An optimized boiler design has been proposed which features a circular combustion chamber, an extra annular channel and combustion air swirling. The decrease of CO emission (compared to the original design) by more than 90% is foreseen at excess air ratio of 2.0. According to the model predictions, the optimized boiler can be operated at 1.5 excess air with 80% reduced CO emissions and more than 80% reduction of solid particles discharge.

Insights into the dynamics and evolution of the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull summit eruption (Iceland) provided by volcanic ash textures

The April–May 2010 eruption of the Eyjafjallajökull volcano (Iceland) represents an example of explosive activity dominated by prolonged, low- to mid-intensity emission of ash, as it was characterized by a continuous injection of tephra into the atmosphere that affected various economic sectors in Iceland and caused a world-wide interruption of air traffic. This eruption has become a benchmark for the understanding of the processes that govern the dynamics of ash-dominated eruptions, also representing a unique opportunity for direct ash particle investigation.In this paper, selected ash samples from all phases of the eruption were studied in order to characterize: 1) the morphology, composition and texture of ash fragments; 2) the variability of the products of each phase of the eruption; 3) the progressive changes of these features with time. The large morphological and textural variability of the ash fragments throughout the eruption is unrelated to any important compositional change, and it reflects changes in eruption dynamics and in the mechanisms of magma fragmentation. Textural and morphological features of juveniles suggest that primary magma degassing dominated and modulated the dynamics of the entire eruption, while hydromagmatic fragmentation was particularly effective only in the very initial phase. As a consequence, the large production of fine-grained ash cannot be attributed to processes of magma–water interaction, and mechanisms of brittle to ductile fragmentation related to magma degassing or ash recycling must be invoked. The study demonstrates how the textural and morphological analysis of ash fragments can give important hints to the understanding of the eruption dynamics of complex, long lasting eruptions.

Experimental generation of volcanic lightning

Explosive volcanic eruptions are commonly associated with intense electrical activity and lightning. Direct measurement of the electric potential at the vent, where the electric activity in the volcanic plume is first observed, is severely impeded, limiting progress in its investigation. We have achieved volcanic lightning in the laboratory during rapid decompression experiments of gas-particle mixtures under controlled conditions, and recorded it using a high-speed camera and two antennas. We find that lightning is controlled by the dynamics of the particle-laden jet and by the abundance of fine particles. The relative movement of clusters of charged particles generates the electrical potential, which is necessary for lightning. The experimental generation of volcanic lightning suggests that rapid progress can now be expected in understanding electrical phenomena in volcanic plumes to implement lightning monitoring systems and the forecasting of volcanic ash emissions.

Analysis of dynamics of vulcanian activity of Ubinas volcano, using multicomponent seismic antennas

A series of 16 vulcanian explosions occurred at Ubinas volcano between May 24 and June 14, 2009. The intervals between explosions were from 2.1h to more than 6days (mean interval, 33h). Considering only the first nine explosions, the average time interval was 7.8h. Most of the explosions occurred after a short time interval (<8h) and had low energy, which suggests that the refilling time was not sufficient for large accumulation of gas. A tremor episode followed 75% of the explosions, which coincided with pulses of ash emission. The durations of the tremors following the explosions were longer for the two highest energy explosions. To better understand the physical processes associated with these eruptive events, we localized the sources of explosions using two seismic antennas that were composed of three-component 10 and 12 sensors. We used the high-resolution MUSIC-3C algorithm to estimate the slowness vector for the first waves that composed the explosion signals recorded by the two antennas assuming propagation in a homogeneous medium. The initial part of the explosions was dominated by two frequencies, at 1.1Hz and 1.5Hz, for which we identified two separated sources located at 4810m and 3890m+/−390 altitude, respectively. The position of these two sources was the same for the full 16 explosions. This implies the reproduction of similar mechanisms in the conduit. Based on the eruptive mechanisms proposed for other volcanoes of the same type, we interpret the position of these two sources as the limits of the conduit portion that was involved in the fragmentation process. Seismic data and ground deformation recorded simultaneously less than 2km from the crater showed a decompression movement 2s prior to each explosion. This movement can be interpreted as gas leakage at the level of the cap before its destruction. The pressure drop generated in the conduit could be the cause of the fragmentation process that propagated deeper. Based on these observations, we interpret the position of the highest source as the part of the conduit under the cap, and the deeper source as the limit of the fragmentation zone.

Mechanism of small vulcanian eruptions at Suwanosejima volcano, Japan, as inferred from precursor inflations and tremor signals

We examine precursory signals of vulcanian eruptions at Suwanosejima volcano, southwest of Japan, by deploying seismic and tilt stations close to the active crater to understand the shallow conduit processes just before explosions. Vulcanian eruptions at Suwanosejima for the period from October 2009 to 2011 are often preceded by a sudden cessation of continuous tremor associated with continuous ash emissions. The amplitude of continuous tremor decreases within about 10 s, and tilt signal starts to show uplift of the active crater. Then, the pause of continuous tremor and uplift continue for about 1–2 min, and tilt amplitudes reach a few tens of nanoradians at a distance of 400 m from the active crater. As the pause time of continuous tremor before explosion becomes longer, the maximum amplitude of explosion earthquake and uplift signal become larger. Vulcanian eruptions are also observed during periods without continuous tremor. In these cases, tilt signals capture uplifts of the active crater for about 10 min before explosions and reach a few tens of nanoradians. Cessations of volcanic gas emissions are observed before some explosions during periods without continuous tremor (Mori et al. 2011). These observations suggest that pressurization in the shallow conduit is caused by an accumulation of volcanic gases and ash through the formation of ‘cap’ in the conduit, possibly composed of stiffened magma due to degassing, cooling, rheological changes, or other mechanisms.

The 2nd to 4th century explosive activity of Vesuvius: new data on the timing of the upward migration of the post-A.D. 79 magma chamber

&lt;p&gt;We present volcanological data on the deposits of the Santa Maria Member (SMM), the eruption cycle occurred at Vesuvius (Italy) in the period between the A.D. 79 plinian and the A.D. 472 subplinan eruptions. Historical accounts report only sporadic, poorly reliable descriptions of the volcanic activity in this period, during which a stratified sequence of ash and lapilli beds, up to 150 cm thick, with a total volume estimated around 0.15 km&lt;span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;, was widely dispersed on the outer slopes of the volcano. Stratigraphic studies and component analyses suggest that activity was characterized by mixed hydromagmatic and magmatic processes. The eruption style has been interpreted as repeated alternations of continuous and prolonged ash emission activity intercalated with short-lived, violent strombolian phases. Analyses of the bulk rock composition reveal that during the entire eruption cycle, magma maintained an homogeneous phonotephritic composition. In addition, the general trends of major and trace elements depicted by the products of the A.D. 79 and A.D. 472 eruptions converge to the SMM composition, suggesting a common mafic end-member for these eruptions. The volatile content measured in pyroxene-hosted melt inclusions indicates two main values of crystallization pressures, around 220 and 70 MPa, roughly corresponding to the previously estimated depth of the magma reservoirs of the A.D. 79 and A.D. 472 eruptions, respectively. The study of SMM eruption cycle may thus contribute to understand the processes governing the volcano reawakening immediately after a plinian event, and the timing and modalities which govern the migration of the magma reservoir.&lt;/p&gt;

Etna and the Perception of Volcanic Risk

Sicily's uneven geological structure is positioned within a system of tectonic plates, and its very active volcano has always made it prone to disasters. Many Sicilian cities have in fact been destroyed by natural events many times over the centuries. This can certainly be understood negatively as the destruction of entire towns, the emission of volcanic ash, and the mutation of landscapes by a terrifying force have instilled fearful memories in local populations. But from another point of view one must consider the positive elements of Etna. Its beautiful landscapes were a major attraction on the Grand Tour, and its inhabitants have long associated the volcano with the concept of rebirth and fertility. This paper analyzes two age groups of residents in the town of Nicolosi and is a small part of an ongoing research project that is much more complex, involving representative samples of the entire population of several towns around Etna.

Cost, energy, and greenhouse gas analysis of fly ash stabilised cold in-place recycled asphalt pavement

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the performance, costs, energy, and greenhouse gas emission of cementitious high-carbon fly ash (CHCFA)-stabilised recycled pavement materials (RPMs) as base course. Three test road cells were built in Minnesota. These cells have the same pavement structure except different base courses: conventional crushed aggregates, untreated RPM, and CHCFA-stabilised RPM. Results of laboratory and field tests were used in the Mechanistic-empirical pavement design guide (MEPDG) to predict the pavement performance. MEPDG performance prediction indicated that Cell 79 containing CHCFA-stabilised RPM had the longest service life in the three cells. The life-cycle analysis indicated that the usage of the CHCFA-stabilised RPM as the base of the flexible pavement can significantly reduce the life-cycle cost, energy consumption, and greenhouse gas emission.

Emission Characteristicsof of PCBs of Combustion of Sludge-Coal Water Slurry in Fluidized Bed

Sludge-coal water slurry (SCWS) can be produced by mixing coal water slurry (CWS) with sewage sludge according to differenct ratio. This paper focuses on the combustive feasibility of SCWS in a commercial circulating fluidized bed, and on the emission characteristics of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in flue gas fly ash and bottom ash during combustion of SCWS. The results indicated that incineration can do very well with the temperature 1000 degree, sludge coal water slurry (SCWS) can be effective in improving sludge incineration rate, if the proportion of sludge is 20%~30%,amounts of PCBs is relatively small in flue gas fly ash and bottom ash. So the best burning rate is 20%-30%. Although incineration flue gas fly ash and bottom ash emission standard don't have PCBs regulations, but since PCBs are toxic organic pollutants, it should be strictly regulated.

A volcanic activity alert-level system for aviation: review of its development and application in Alaska

An alert-level system for communicating volcano hazard information to the aviation industry was devised by the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) during the 1989–1990 eruption of Redoubt Volcano. The system uses a simple, color-coded ranking that focuses on volcanic ash emissions: Green—normal background; Yellow—signs of unrest; Orange—precursory unrest or minor ash eruption; Red—major ash eruption imminent or underway. The color code has been successfully applied on a regional scale in Alaska for a sustained period. During 2002–2011, elevated color codes were assigned by AVO to 13 volcanoes, eight of which erupted; for that decade, one or more Alaskan volcanoes were at Yellow on 67 % of days and at Orange or Red on 12 % of days. As evidence of its utility, the color code system is integrated into procedures of agencies responsible for air-traffic management and aviation meteorology in Alaska. Furthermore, it is endorsed as a key part of globally coordinated protocols established by the International Civil Aviation Organization to provide warnings of ash hazards to aviation worldwide. The color code and accompanying structured message (called a Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation) comprise an effective early-warning message system according to the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction. The aviation color code system currently is used in the United States, Russia, New Zealand, Iceland, and partially in the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, and Indonesia. Although there are some barriers to implementation, with continued education and outreach to Volcano Observatories worldwide, greater use of the aviation color code system is achievable.

Vulnerability Assessment for Human Targets due to Ash Fallout From Mt. Etna

The volcanic ash fallouts are able to affect the human health and the integrity of industrial facilities. The study of the effects associated with ash emissions was the objective of the PRIN project carried on by the authors of this paper. The activities of the project allowed to define a simplified procedure for the vulnerability assessment of human and industrial targets, that has been applied to the area surrounding Mt. Etna. Recent several ash fallouts from this volcano have caused significant problems to the resident population, traffic and industrial activities. The application of the study to this territory provided a vulnerability mapping to support the decision making both in terms of the definition of protection measures and of the emergency planning and management.