Area-wide Management Research Articles

Effects of the area of source habitat and habitat connectivity on soybean pod borer damage: Implications for area-wide management

The soybean pod borer, Leguminivora glycinivorella (Matsumura), is an important soybean pest that reduces both quality and yield in Asia, and chemical control is used irrespective of the damage risk. The pest population density increases at continuously cropped soybean fields (hereafter, source habitat). The present study would contribute to proposing pest management options matched to the damage risk by clarifying the surrounding landscape structures where damage is likely to increase. First, we clarified the relationship between the probability of grain damage and the source habitat within a 350 m radius of the new or continuously cropped soybean fields. The habitat area surrounding continuous soybean fields positively influenced the probability of grain damage but did not detect a significant effect in new soybean fields. Secondly, we clarified the relationship between the probability of grain damage and habitat connectivity in continuous soybean fields. Well-managed fields with high connectivity consistently showed low damage risk. Meanwhile, damage risk varied in fields with low connectivity, indicating that damage is unlikely to occur because soybean pod borers are difficult to invade. However, once invaded, the damage could be extensive. Considering these results, one possible new control system will allow the spatiotemporal variation in the number of insecticide applications. The present study likely contributes to understanding the relationship between soybean pod borer injury and landscape structure, which is important for area-wide pest management.

Physical traits and fitness of cold-induced lethargic Diachasmimorpha longicaudata (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) adults

ABSTRACT The chilled adult technique is a suitable strategy for the mass-release of insects for the area-wide management of insect pests. Chilling may have undesirable effects on the released insects. The relationship between physical traits and the effects of cold-induced lethargy on the fitness of Diachasmimorpha longicaudata has not been fully explored. In the present study, we evaluated the relationship between weight, size, and water and lipid content in D. longicaudata subjected to cold-induced lethargy at 9, 6, and 3°C, and the effects of cold induction on the survival, flight ability, and fecundity of parasitoid adults. During gradual chilling from 15°C to 3°C over a 45 min period, we observed that most wasps became lethargic at 9°C. The tibias of wasps that became lethargic at 3°C were larger than those of parasitoids that became lethargic at 9 and 6°C. Body water and lipid contents were higher in lethargic females chilled at 3°C, but no differences were observed in males. Lethargic males experienced reduced flight ability compared with the control, whereas fecundity was reduced only in lethargic females that had been exposed to 3°C. The survival rate was lower in both sexes. Our results suggest that greater body size and higher water and lipid contents delay the onset of cold-induced lethargy, but do not prevent negative effects on survival, fecundity, and flight ability in D. longicaudata. This study will help the advancement of parasitoid-release field programmes that use the chilled adult technique.

Area-wide pest management and prospects for fall armyworm control on smallholder farms in Africa: A review

Area-wide pest management and prospects for fall armyworm control on smallholder farms in Africa: A review

CRISPR/Cas9 mediated validation of spermatogenesis-related gene, tssk2 as a component of genetic pest management of fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).

Invasive insect pests, currently, pose a serious economic threat to several staple crops all over the world, one such being the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda. It was first observed in Africa since 2016, outside of its natural habitat in the Americas. Subsequently, it invaded several countries in South and South East Asia and also very recently in Australia. In all the newly invaded regions, maize is the principal crop attacked causing a serious economic concern to the poor farmers, particularly in the developing countries. Owing to the innate genetic ability, it defies many of the management options that include insecticides, Bt transgenics, and so forth. This is due to its high mobility, polyphagy and ability for quick development of resistance to several classes of insecticides. At this critical juncture, CRISPR/Cas9 mediated genome editing has shown a lot of promise in developing a novel area-wide pest management strategy called precision-guided sterile insect technique (pgSIT). pgSIT was initially demonstrated in Drosophila melanogaster which holds a greater promise for the environmentally friendly management of several globally significant agricultural pests such as S. frugiperda. Therefore, before developing both sgRNA and Cas9 transgenic lines, we have validated the target gene such as tssk2 through a non-transgenic approach by microinjecting ribo nucleo protein complex (Cas9 protein and tssk2 sgRNA) into G0 eggs of S. frugiperda. In the current investigation, we have obtained five edited males with distinct mutations which were further used for crossing studies to ascertain the effect of tssk2 editing affecting egg hatchability.

Construction of an Area-wide Management System for Transboundary Pest: The Case of Global Coordination and Its Implications for China

Construction of an Area-wide Management System for Transboundary Pest: The Case of Global Coordination and Its Implications for China

Coffee berry borer (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) population dynamics across Hawaii Island's diverse coffee-growing landscape: optimizing location-specific pesticide applications.

A major challenge to area-wide management of coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) is understanding how a heterogeneous coffee-growing landscape affects coffee berry borer population dynamics across temporal and spatial scales. We examined coffee phenology, weather, coffee berry borer flight activity, infestation, coffee berry borer position within the fruit, and management across 14 commercial coffee farms from 2016 to 2018 on Hawaii Island to characterize variation among districts and elevations. Here we aim to determine whether the timing of pesticide applications might be optimized based on specific locations. We observed larger populations of coffee berry borer at low-elevation farms and in the Kona district compared to mid- and high-elevation farms and the Ka'u district. Temperature, relative humidity, and rainfall all differed significantly across districts and elevations. We also observed a trend of higher fruit production at low-elevation farms compared to high-elevation farms, and differences in the timing of fruit development. Infestation increased with higher pest pressure and air temperatures and reduced fruit availability early and late in the season. Lastly, the timing and number of management interventions varied among districts and elevations. Combining information on trap catch, infestation, coffee berry borer position, and plant phenology, we present an optimized pesticide spray schedule for each location and find that the number of sprays could be reduced by 33-75% in comparison to the existing integrated pest management recommendations while maintaining effective control. Implementing a coordinated area-wide approach refined by small-scale optimization will lead to improved management of coffee berry borer on individual farms and a reduction in pest pressure across the coffee-growing landscape.

Farmer’s perception on Chinese citrus fruit fly (CFFs) and its management in Solukhumbu and Sindhuli district of Nepal

This study conducted between January and June 2022 aimed to assess the impact of precipitation on Bactrocera minax, a citrus pest, in Nepal's Solukhumbu and Sindhuli districts. Primary data were gathered from 84 respondents using pre-tested interview schedules, focal group discussions (FGD), and key informant interviews (KII), while secondary information was collected through literature review. The results highlighted the Chinese citrus fruit fly as a significant citrus pest causing fruit drop, particularly impacting Mandarin cultivation after sweet orange displacement. Farmers in Sindhuli exhibited greater motivation and trust in citrus cultivation compared to those in Solukhumbu. Notably, the fruit drop was lower (4.33%) in Sindhuli where the Area-wide Management Program (AWCP) utilizing protein bait and field sanitation was applied, in contrast to Solukhumbu where fruit drop was higher (35.5%), suggesting the effectiveness of AWCP. The PMAMP Sindhuli super zone played a direct role in the study, with respondents in Sindhuli demonstrating higher awareness of Chinese citrus fruit flies and AWCP. Technical and financial support for citrus cultivation was also more prevalent in Sindhuli. Furthermore, the study found that the majority of respondents perceived protein bait (AWCP) as the most straightforward, effective, and expensive management method, despite its limited application in Solukhumbu. This study underscores the importance of AWCP in mitigating citrus pest infestation, particularly in areas with high precipitation, and emphasizes the need for broader adoption of effective management strategies in citrus cultivation regions.

A spatio-temporal modelling approach to understand the effect of urban fruit fly outbreaks on peri-urban orchards

Urban areas are well-known sources of fruit fly introduction and unmanaged populations pose a high risk of dispersal to surrounding agricultural areas. Although management of urban fruit fly populations is recognised as being important for area-wide control programmes, its relative importance is rarely quantified. Identifying possible sources of fruit fly populations is important to the success of area-wide programs, as well as to on-farm management. We developed a modelling approach to analyse the spatio-temporal connectivity of fruit fly across urban-agriculture boundaries. For a case study, we examine Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata, outbreaks in two fruit growing regions in south-west Western Australia. Connectivity between population sources was defined using a dispersal kernel and routinely collected surveillance data from traps located across urban and agricultural areas. Spatio-temporal Bayesian models were then developed to quantify the extent to which unmanaged urban populations contribute to commercial orchards across each region. Our model results from two fruit growing regions indicate that population connectivity is a strong predictor of urban and commercial orchard Mediterranean fruit fly density. Models demonstrate that unmanaged urban outbreaks can contribute to increased pest pressure in surrounding orchards up to 2 km, but the urban contribution quickly declines over this distance. We also demonstrated that our models provide a means of predicting changes in Mediterranean fruit fly density across a region. Regional scale inference from our models may be particularly useful for sites where surveillance trapping data is unavailable. With an increasing risk of fruit fly incursions from expanding urban areas into agricultural regions, it is important to understand the processes driving population connectivity to target pest management strategies. By modelling surveillance trapping data and population connectivity, we can quantify how unmanaged urban pest infestations can contribute to pest pressure in nearby commercial orchards. Such information can help pest managers quantify the risk posed by unmanaged urban infestations when designing and implementing area-wide management.

The effect of permanent protective netting on insect pest prevalence in citrus orchards in South Africa

The use of protective netting is becoming an increasingly popular practice in the citrus industry in South Africa. However, data on its effects on biotic factors, particularly insect pests, are limited. This study focused on the effect nets have on key citrus pests in the Eastern Cape province. Orchards under nets and open orchards, of similar cultivars, ages and management practices, were monitored at several sites over two seasons for pest infestation and damage. Weekly monitoring was conducted for Thaumatotibia leucotreta infestation. Other pests were monitored either monthly or once a season. During the first season, T. leucotreta infestation was higher in orchards under nets, probably because, unlike the open orchards, the nets provided protection for the existing high levels of T. leucotreta. No T. leucotreta infestation was recorded in both orchard types in 2019. This was due to generally lower than usual pest abundance and dramatically improved area-wide management of T. leucotreta. Pheromone traps were used to monitor T. leucotreta males, including sterile moths used in a sterile insect technique programme. Although higher catches of wild T. leucotreta moths were recorded in orchards under nets, so too were there higher numbers of sterile moths and a higher ratio of sterile to wild moths, indicating the potential for better pest suppression for orchards under nets. Various other key pests were monitored during this time, with variable results for each species. Pests that were elevated under nets include Planococcus citri and Aonidiella aurantii. Pests that seemed to be lower under nets were Ceratitis capitata and Scirtothrips aurantii. Nets had no effect on Empoasca distinguenda, Penthimiola bella and Eriophyes sheldoni. These differences in pest levels in netted and open orchards trigger an important debate on whether nets are beneficial for or detrimental to the successful implementation of an integrated pest management programme.

Standardisation of gamma irradiation dose for Sterile Insect Technique to manage South American tomato moth [Phthorimaea (Tuta) absoluta (Meyrick)

Laboratory studies were conducted to standardise optimum dose of gamma irradiation to induce sterility in males of South American tomato moth [Phthorimaea (Tuta) absoluta (Meyrick)], a major pest on tomato. Among the different irradiation doses tested, 150 Gy was found to be effective to induce male sterility in P. absoluta, where sterile males exhibited mating competitiveness, significantly reduced fecundity and hatchability in F1 and F2 generations. Five days old pupae were found ideal for exposing to gamma irradiation to induce male sterility in P. absoluta that could be used for area wide management using SIT.

Landscape-scale spatiotemporal dynamics of Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) populations: implications for spatially-based pest management.

Brown marmorated stink bug (BMSB), Halyomorpha halys (Stål), is an invasive and severe pest of specialty and row crops. A 2-year field study conducted in four Mid-Atlantic states in the USA characterized the spatial and temporal dynamics of BMSB populations and its association with landscape elements in commercial agriculture settings. In each state, two 1 km2 sites included typical landscape elements (i.e., tree fruit orchards, annual field and vegetable crops, woodlands, and human-made structures). Twenty-seven georeferenced pheromone traps were deployed per site and the number of BMSB adults and nymphs captured was counted throughout the growing season. Findings from spatial analysis by distance indices, along with time-series maps of BMSB distribution, showed that BMSB exhibited significant spatial aggregation, and that its distribution was spatially consistent between years. Analyses with geographic information systems (GIS) revealed that BMSB 'hot spots' occurred in different landscape elements throughout each season. Most patches (i.e., clusters of significantly higher trap captures) were found near woodlands early in the season, near tree fruit orchards in summer, and on the border of annual field crops in autumn. Buffer analysis with GIS indicated that more BMSB adults were captured closer to woodlands compared with other landscape elements. Understanding the spatial and temporal movement and distribution of BMSB is critical to predicting their potential impact and ultimately devising strategies to mitigate this risk to vulnerable crops. The results of this study can be used to design streamlined, spatially-based areawide management of BMSB in heterogeneous and complex agricultural landscapes. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry. This article has been contributed to by U.S. Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.

Natural habitat connectivity and organic management modulate pest dispersal, gene flow, and natural enemy communities.

The simplification and fragmentation of agricultural landscapes generate effects on insects at multiple spatial scales. As each functional group perceives and uses the habitat differently, the response of pest insects and their associated natural enemies to environmental changes varies. Therefore, landscape structure may have consequences on gene flow among pest populations in space. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of local and landscape factors, at multiple scales, on the local infestation, gene flow and broad dispersion dynamics of the pest insect Bemisia tabaci (Genn.) Middle East-Asia Minor 1 (MEAM-1, former biotype B) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) and its associated natural enemies in a tropical agroecosystem. We evaluated the abundance of B. tabaci populations and their natural enemy community in 20 tomato farms in Brazil and the gene flow between farms from 2019 to 2021. Landscapes dominated by agriculture resulted in larger B. tabaci populations and higher gene flow, especially in conventional farms. A higher density of native vegetation patches disfavored pest populations, regardless of the management system. The results revealed that whitefly responds to intermediate spatial scales and that landscape factors interact with management systems to modulate whitefly populations on focal farms. Conversely, whitefly natural enemies benefited from higher amounts of natural vegetation at small spatial scales, while the connectivity between natural habitat patches was beneficial for natural enemies regardless of the distance from the focal farm. The resulting dispersion model predicts that the movement of whiteflies between farms increases as the amount of natural vegetation decreases. Our findings demonstrate that landscape features, notably landscape configuration, can mediate infestation episodes, as they affect pest insects and natural enemies in opposite ways. We also showed that landscape features interact with farm traits, which highlights the need for management strategies at multiple spatial scales. In conclusion, we demonstrated the importance of the conservation of natural areas as a key strategy for area-wide ecological pest management and the relevance of organic farming to benefit natural enemy communities in tropical agroecosystems.

Risk-based regionalization approach for area-wide management of HLB vectors in the Mediterranean Basin.

Huanglongbing (HLB) is one of the most devastating citrus diseases worldwide. It is associated with the non-culture bacteria Candidatus Liberibacter spp., which can be transmitted by grafting and/or the psyllid vectors Diaphorina citri (ACP) and Trioza erytreae (AfCP). Although HLB has not been reported in the Mediterranean Basin to date, both vectors are present, and thus represent a serious threat to the citrus industry in this region. Resistant citrus cultivars or effective therapeutic treatments are not currently available for HLB. Nevertheless, area-wide pest management via coordinated management efforts over large areas has been implemented in Brazil, China and the USA for HLB control. This study proposes an open access flexible methodology to address area-wide management of both HLB vectors in the Mediterranean Basin. Based on a risk-based approach which considers climatic information and other variables that may influence vector introduction and spread, such as conventional, organic, abandoned and residential citrus areas as well as transportation corridors, an area-wide management division in pest management areas (PMAs) is proposed. The size and location of these PMAs were estimated by means of a hierarchical clustering algorithm with spatial constraints whose performance was assessed under different configuration scenarios. This proposal may assist policymakers and the citrus industry of the citrus-growing areas of the Mediterranean Basin in risk management planning in the case of the spread of HLB vectors or a possible introduction of the disease. Additionally, it may be a valuable resource to inform opinion dynamic models, enabling the identification of pivotal factors for the success of control measures.

Grower attitudes and practices toward area-wide management of cropping weeds in Australia

ContextThe mobility of weeds, use of biological controls and spread of herbicide resistance mean that weed management is a landscape-scale problem. Area-wide management (AWM) presents one approach for land managers, industry and government representatives to collaborate to manage weeds across public and private properties. Such an approach has been successfully used for other landscape-scale problems, such as managing animal and insect pests. ObjectiveThis study aims to identify what individual, community and institutional factors are associated with growers’ participation in collaborative weed management in three cropping regions of Australia. MethodsSurvey responses from 604 cropping growers from the Riverina (n = 218), Sunraysia (n = 200), and Darling Downs (n = 186) regions of eastern Australia were recorded between July and September 2021. Questions were designed to collect information on: socio-economic characteristics; the nature of farming operations; weed management concerns and beliefs; and individual and collaborative weed management practices, which constitute area-wide weed management (AWWM). Fisher’s Exact test was applied to assess differences between growers who do and do not work together with others to manage weeds. P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. The Boruta random forest function was used for feature selection and a random forest regression including the selected variables was then applied to determine the accuracy of the model that explains whether land managers collaborate with others on weed management. Results and ConclusionAlmost all (95%) growers agreed that each land manager has a responsibility to the whole region to control weeds and 84% agreed that effective control of weeds requires land managers to work together. Yet only 24% of growers currently work with other land managers on weed management. Growers who are less likely to work with others to manage weeds are those who: are less concerned about herbicide resistant weeds spreading to neighbouring land; are unlikely to share information with other land managers about weeds; or who are unlikely to attend meetings about local weed issues. Supporting greater uptake of AWM of weeds in the future will require increased awareness and education about the spread of herbicide resistance, building of new networks among growers and other key stakeholders, and development of AWWM activities that are accessible to all land managers regardless of time and financial constraints. SignificanceThis research demonstrates for the first time the limited extent of AWM of cropping weeds among growers in eastern Australia, and that AWWM is hindered by knowledge, network and access constraints.

Meanings, materials and competences of area-wide weed management in cropping systems

CONTEXTArea-wide collaboration across private and public property boundaries can enhance the management of weeds and minimise the spread of herbicide resistance. Yet we know little about the practices individual land managers engage in to achieve area-wide weed management (AWWM). OBJECTIVEThis paper uses Social Practice Theory (SPT) as a framework to understand how cropping land managers engage with the practices of AWWM, and what the drivers and barriers are to their participation. METHODS30 qualitative interviews were undertaken with land managers in Australian cropping regions of the Darling Downs (Queensland), Gwydir (New South Wales), Riverina (New South Wales) and Sunraysia (Victoria). Thematic analysis of the interviews explored the three dimensions of SPT—meanings, materials, and competences—of AWWM and the interactions between these elements. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSThere is a value-action gap between growers' desire to participate in AWWM practices and their capacity to do so. The analysis reveals that narrowing this gap requires interventions at the points where the SPT elements intersect. It recommends beginning by leveraging existing commonalities between growers who already have a desire to participate in AWWM then scaling out by encouraging trusted agronomist networks to link diverse growers to facilitate collaborative weed management practices. There is also a role for government in supporting the development of leadership capabilities among growers, providing an enabling environment for agronomists to act as systemic facilitators and leading by example on public land. SIGNIFICANCEMost of the research on collective management of weeds has focused on formal groups in grazing systems. This study provides new insights into how and why weeds are largely managed independently in cropping systems and proposes ways growers may be supported to adopt more collaborative practices to address this landscape-scale problem.

Population Dynamics of the Olive Fly, Bactrocera oleae (Diptera: Tephritidae), Are Influenced by Different Climates, Seasons, and Pest Management

Pest management practices interact with many species and have an impact on the ecology and the economy of the area. In this paper, we examine the population dynamics of the olive fly, Bactrocera oleae (Rossi), Diptera: Tephritidae, on Samos Island, Greece, observing the spatial and temporal changes of the pest along an altitude associated with area-wide pest management. More specifically, we analyze data from an extended McPhail trap network and focus on experimental sites, where we monitor the pest population in relation to sprays, temperature, and relative humidity inside the tree canopy during the season for a three-year period. Our findings indicate that fly populations are influenced mostly by climate and altitude over longer periods in the season and from bait sprays for shorter periods of time, which appeared to be less effective in autumn, probably due to population movements and overlapping generations. Apart from the factors that were taken into account, such as the weather conditions and pest management regimes that were proven important, more factors will have to be considered for infestation level, such as fruit availability, inhibition factors (natural enemies, symbiotic agents, food supplies), and cultivation practices. Site microclimate conditions and the landscape can be used to explain changes at the plot level.

Pest Status, Bio-Ecology, and Area-Wide Management of Mirids in East Asia.

Mirids (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Miridae) feed upon a wide variety of cultivated and wild plants and can be economically important crop pests. They have traditionally been perceived as innocuous herbivores in East Asia; however, population levels of various mirid species have dramatically increased over the past decades. High-profile pests such as Apolygus spp., Adelphocoris spp., and Lygus spp. are now widely distributed across the region, and their infestation pressure is associated with climate, agroecological conditions, and farming practices. This review outlines how an in-depth understanding of pest biology, a systems-level characterization of pest ecology, and a comprehensive evaluation of integrated pest management tactics have enabled sustainable management of mirids across crop boundaries and harvest cycles. This work underscores how more holistic, integrative research approaches can accelerate the implementation of area-wide management of generalist pests, effectively prevent pest population build-up and yield impact, and shrink the environmental footprint of agriculture. In addition to highlighting the merits of interdisciplinary systems approaches, we discuss prospects and challenges for the sustainable management of polyphagous mirid pests in landscape matrices.

Effect of the Sterile Insect Technique and Augmentative Parasitoid Releases in a Fruit Fly Suppression Program in Mango-Producing Areas of Southeast Mexico.

The Sterile Insect Technique (SIT), by means of sterile male releases of Anastrepha ludens (Loew), coupled with Augmentative Biological Control (ABC), by releasing the parasitoid Diachasmimorpha longicaudata (Ashmead), was evaluated in a commercial mango production area for one year. The obtained results were compared with mean fruit fly population values from two previous years without the combined use of both techniques. The treatments were: SIT + ABC, SIT, ABC, and Control, and each treatment was established in blocks of 5000 Ha separated by distances of 5-10 km. The evaluations were carried out through fruit sampling to assess percent parasitism and trapping of adult flies to obtain Flies per Trap per Day (FTD) values. The mean percentage of parasitism increased from 0.59% in the control treatment to 19.38% in the block with ABC. The FTD values decreased from ~0.129 and ~0.012 in the control block to 0.0021 in the block with SIT and ABC, representing a 98% suppression. The difference between the two periods in the control block was not significant. We conclude that the integration of both techniques resulted in an additive suppression of the pest population, supporting the use of both control techniques in an area-wide pest management context.

Assessment of the socio-economic impacts associated with the arrival of apple snail (Pomacea canaliculata) in Mwea irrigation scheme, Kenya.

In Kenya, rice (Oryza sativa L.) is mainly produced under irrigation by small-scale farmers. Mwea irrigation scheme (MIS) in Kirinyaga County accounts for 80-88% of rice production. Here, rice is the main source of livelihood and a source of revenue generation for the county. However, a recently established invasive freshwater snail, Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck) (family: Ampullariidae), a species of apple snail, presents a serious threat to rice production. Household surveys, focus group discussions and key informant interviews highlight apple snail as a serious problem in MIS. Households that observed at least a moderate level of infestation (>20% of cultivated area) experienced significant reductions in rice yield (~14%) and net rice income (~60%). Farmers reported increased use of chemical pesticides for management of apple snail. In addition, the cost of hired labor for physical removal of egg masses and snails is resulting in substantial negative effects on net income. Farmer age, area of land owned, responsibility for decision-making, receipt of extension advice, training, and membership of a farmer organization, were all statistically significant variables to explain farmers awareness of the need for area-wide apple snail management. Strategies to limit the spread of apple snail are urgently needed. A Multi-Institutional Technical Team (MITT) has been established to spearhead management efforts and consolidate advice to farmers on how to manage apple snail. However, without action to mitigate spread, the consequences could be disastrous for rice production and food security in Kenya, and for other rice growing regions across Africa. © 2023 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Can Entomopathogenic Nematodes and Their Symbiotic Bacteria Suppress Fruit Fly Pests? A Review.

Fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) are serious pests that affect fruit production and marketing. Both third instar larvae and pupae are biological stages that persist in the soil until adult emergence. Entomopathogenic nematodes (ENs) are biological control agents that are used to control agricultural pests in greenhouse or field conditions. Several studies have been carried out under laboratory and field conditions showing how ENs can be applied within an area-wide integrated pest management approach to control fruit fly species in orchards and backyard fruit trees. In this review, we analyze how soil physical characteristics and biotic factors affect the performance of these biological control agents. Of the reviewed papers, more than half evaluated the influence of soil texture, humidity, temperature, and other factors on the performance of infective juveniles (IJs). Abiotic factors that significantly influence the performance of IJs are temperature, humidity, and texture. Among the biotic factors that affect IJs are fungi, bacteria, mites, insects, and earthworms. We conclude that ENs have the potential to be applied in the drip area of fruit trees that are infested by fruit flies and contribute to their suppression. This approach, in conjunction with an area-wide pest management approach, may contribute to pest suppression and increase the sustainability of agroecosystems.