Productivity Of Arable Land Research Articles

Urban spatial development and land use in Beijing: Implications from London’s experiences

Beijing is facing a huge challenge to manage the growth of its built-up area whilst also retaining both productive arable land and land for conservation purposes in order to simultaneously realize the three aims of economic development, protecting arable land and generating environmental improvements. Meanwhile, London, as a world city with more than 200 years of industrialization and urbanization, has accumulated rich theoretical and practical experiences for land use planning in a major urban area, such as the creation of Garden Cities, a designated Green Belt and New Towns. This paper firstly analyzes the main characteristics of the spatial distribution of the built-up area, arable land and conservation land in Beijing. Then, some of the key aspects of urban fringe planning in the London region are examined. Lastly, several implications from the experience of London are provided with respect to land-use planning for Beijing, concentrating on a re-appraisal of land-use functions around Beijing, measures to improve the green belt, the development of small towns to house rural-urban migrants and urban overspill, and effective implementation of land-use planning.

Climate change and agricultural ecosystem management in dry areas

Corresponding author. Email: neil.turner@uwa.edu.auThe world population is expected to reach 9 billion by 2050 andfoodproductiontosupportthispopulationneedstoincreasebyatleast 60% while maintaining the natural resource base and theenvironment (World Bank 2008). The decrease in productivearable land from urbanisation, the reduction in irrigable landdue to water scarcity and groundwater salinisation, competitionfor use of crops for biofuels, and increasing cost of inputs (e.g.fertilizers,fuel,pesticidesandherbicides)suggestthatagricultureneedstobemuchmoreefficientinitsuseofland,waterandenergyinordertomeetthefoodsecurityrequirementsoftherisingworldpopulation.Thisistruewithoutthecomplicatingfactorofclimatechange. According to the World Development Report (WorldBank2010),foodproductionwillberequiredtoincreaseby1.8%per annum between 2005 and 2050 rather than 1% per annum ifthere were no impact of climate change. This puts tremendouspressureondrylandagriculturetoincreasetheefficiencyofuseofprecipitation and nutrients.The 2nd International Workshop on Ecological Assessmentand Management with the theme ‘Climate change andagricultural ecosystem management in dry areas’, held inLanzhou, Gansu Province, China, from 20 to 25 July 2010,addressed some of these issues. The workshop was organisedby the Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Arid andGrassland Ecology, Department of Arid Agro-ecology atLanzhou University and the UWA Institute of Agricultureat the University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia andincluded leading scientists from China, Australia, the UnitedStates of America, Canada, Syria and Japan. In this issue of

Biofuels agriculture: landscape‐scale trade‐offs between fuel, economics, carbon, energy, food, and fiber

AbstractFirst‐generation biofuels are an existing, scalable form of renewable energy of the type urgently required to mitigate climate change. In this study, we assessed the potential benefits, costs, and trade‐offs associated with biofuels agriculture to inform bioenergy policy. We assessed different climate change and carbon subsidy scenarios in an 11.9 million ha (5.48 million ha arable) region in southern Australia. We modeled the spatial distribution of agricultural production, full life‐cycle net greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and net energy, and economic profitability for both food agriculture (wheat, legumes, sheep rotation) and biofuels agriculture (wheat, canola rotation for ethanol/biodiesel production). The costs, benefits, and trade‐offs associated with biofuels agriculture varied geographically, with climate change, and with the level of carbon subsidy. Below we describe the results in general and provide (in parentheses) illustrative results under historical mean climate and a carbon subsidy of A$20 t−1 CO2−e. Biofuels agriculture was more profitable over an extensive area (2.85 million ha) of the most productive arable land and produced large quantities of biofuels (1.7 GL yr−1). Biofuels agriculture substantially increased economic profit (145.8 million $A yr−1 or 30%), but had only a modest net GHG abatement (−2.57 million t CO2−e yr−1), and a negligible effect on net energy production (−0.11 PJ yr−1). However, food production was considerably reduced in terms of grain (−3.04 million t yr−1) and sheep meat (−1.89 million head yr−1). Wool fiber production was also substantially reduced (−23.19 kt yr−1). While biofuels agriculture can produce short‐term benefits, it also has costs, and the vulnerability of biofuels to climatic warming and drying renders it a myopic strategy. Nonetheless, in some areas the profitability of biofuels agriculture is robust to variation in climate and level of carbon subsidy and these areas may form part of a long‐term diversified mix of land‐use solutions to climate change if trade‐offs can be managed.

Arable Land Productivity and Its Elastic Loss on the Basis of Farm Household Land Use Behavior

Research on grain production capacity in China mostly put emphasis on rigid loss, and neglects elastic loss of grain productivity, especially that from the perspective of farm household land use behavior. At first, the paper elaborates, at different regional scales and temporal levels, the hierarchy of farm household land use and grain production capacity, and the impacts of farm household land use on the elastic loss of grain production capacity. Then, the research progresses in farm household land use, cultivated land intensive use and farmland productivity. We put forward a research framework of grain productivity on the basis of farm household land use and discuss the related study contents and methods. The study on the process, state, and mechanism of farm household land use behavior is the important basis for grain production capacity elastic loss evaluation. We need to explore the spatial and temporal changes of cultivated land intensive use of farm households and the impacts of the difference in intensity on farmland productivity, to analyze the intensity and the difference of elastic loss of grain production capacity at different spatial and temporal scales, and to set up the model of farm household land use-crop growth-the effects on grain production capacity. The researches include the following five aspects: (1) to analyze the mechanism of household land use, (2) to establish a farm household land use decision-making model, (3) to discuss the difference in household land use, (4) to probe into the impacts of farm household land use on grain productivity, (5) to study the change of arable land intensive use and its effects on grain production capacity. Moreover, we need to apply multidisciplinary methods to study on the elastic loss of grain production capacity, such as traditional study method in combination with remote sense information identification, GIS and spatial orientation, and we also need to make some advances in data collection.

Effect of climate change on human health and some adaptive strategies – a review

The impact of human-induced climate change and ozone depletion are now observed to compromise the sustainability of human development as it threatens the ecological support system on which life depends. Evidences abound to show that there is climate change and ozone layer depletion in the last 2-4 decades. The Earth is warming, the warming is accelerating, and human actions are responsible. If the current climate change and warming trends remain uncontrolled, humanity will face more injury, disease and death related to natural disasters and heat waves; higher rates of food-borne, water-borne and vector-borne illnesses; and death that is more premature and disease related to air pollution. Moreover, in many parts of the world, large populations will be displaced by rising sea level, and many others will be affected by drought and famine. As glaciers melt, the hydrological cycle shifts and the productivity of arable land will change. That is the bad news. Nevertheless, the good news is that through increased interdisciplinary and intersectoral collaboration, and rapid deployment of mitigation strategies to stabilize climate change as well as development of proactive adaptation programmes to minimize health impact of climate change, the global community will be better prepared to cope with the challenges of protecting health from the impact of climate change. Key Words: Climate Change, Human Health, Adaptive Strategies

Sociology of Land Reforms and Dalits in Uttar Pradesh

From Dalit standpoint land reform is not just transfer of an economic asset in their favour but it also involves upsetting of the existing socio-political structure. Land reform through market skips this crucial element. This article argues that in a state like Uttar Pradesh where land ownership pattern still follows caste hierarchy reflecting the dominance of upper caste and a few sections of OBCs on agrarian structure and where scope of distribution of ceiling surplus land still remains wide, land reforms through market would perhaps prove counter-productive. This article submits for further discussion that with increasing productivity of arable land, land ceiling should be lowered down especially in irrigated areas.

Ecological footprint analysis of food consumption of rural residents in China in the latest 30 years

Abstract Food consumption appropriates not only arable land but grassland and other various agricultural land resources. It is of great use to analyse time series of ecological appropriation for food consumption of Chinese rural residents from the perspective of total agricultural land resources and then overall evaluation of resource basis to ensure food security with structure upgrading of food consumption. Firstly the appropriated land categories and domestic conversion factors of food consumption items were discussed. Accordingly, the ecological footprint (EF) model with refined factors was applied to macro-estimate the ecological pressure of food consumption and the changes of Chinese rural residents in the latest 30 years. The study indicated that ecological appropriation increased from 1.465 national standard acre (nsa) in 1980 to 1.782 nsa in 2006 with the changes of Chinese food consumption structure of rural residents, and especially the direct appropriated arable land has declined dramatically since 2000. The consumption category of grain was the largest category per capita in spite of decreasing percentage, so staple foods like grain products, vegetables were always laid the first place even though the consumption pattern has changed greatly. Food EF had a strong correlation with expenditure on food over the period; furthermore, it can be evidently proved by an elasticity of per capita meat and aquatic products EF 0.43. The overall ecological pressure of food EF of Chinese rural residents has increased unsteadily, as the grain-consuming animal products and aquatic product contributed to this. The comparison of dynamic analysis of food EF calculated by fixed yields and variable yields indicated that higher productivity of arable land has greatly alleviated the pressure on resources demanded by the process of structure upgrading of the food consumption of rural residents in China.

Assessing the consequence of land use change on agricultural productivity in China

China's cultivated land has been undergoing dramatic changes along with its rapidly growing economy and population. The impacts of land use transformation on food production at the national scale, however, have been poorly understood due to the lack of detailed spatially explicit agricultural productivity information on cropland change and crop productivity. This study evaluates the effect of the cropland transformation on agricultural productivity by combining the land use data of China for the period of 1990–2000 from TM images and a satellite-based NPP (net primary production) model driven with NOAA/AVHRR data. The cropland area of China has a net increase of 2.79 Mha in the study period, which causes a slightly increased agricultural productivity (6.96 Mt C) at the national level. Although the newly cultivated lands compensated for the loss from urban expansion, but the contribution to production is insignificant because of the low productivity. The decrease in crop production resulting from urban expansion is about twice of that from abandonment of arable lands to forests and grasslands. The productivity of arable lands occupied by urban expansion was 80% higher than that of the newly cultivated lands in the regions with unfavorable natural conditions. Significance of cropland transformation impacts is spatially diverse with the differences in land use change intensity and land productivity across China. The increase in arable land area and yet decline in land quality may reduce the production potential and sustainability of China's agro-ecosystems.

Planning and Design of Cost-effective Water Harvesting Structures for Efficient Utilization of Scarce Water Resources in Semi-arid Regions of Rajasthan, India

Water-harvesting structures have the potential to increase the productivity of arable lands by enhancing crop yields and by reducingthe risk of crop failure in arid and semi-arid regions, where water shortages are common because of scanty rainfall and its uneven distribution. In semi-arid regions of Rajasthan, India, existing practice of harvesting rainwater is through anicut and earthen embankments. Because of higher costs and higher technical skills involved in the construction of these structures, these structures have not been accepted by the resource-poor local people. Therefore, in the present paper, the detailed design of some low-cost water-harvesting structures using locally available materials and adaptable to the socio-economic conditions of the beneficiaries is discussed. Two types of cost-effective water-harvesting structures, which include dry stone masonry and upstream-wall cement masonry of heights 1, 2, and 2.5 m for catchments of less than 10, 10 to 20, and 20 to 30 ha, respectively are proposed and designed. The analysis of costs involved in constructing dry stone masonry and upstream-wall cement masonry water-harvesting structures, emergency spillway, anicuts and earthen embankments revealed that the earthen embankments have the least cost of construction whereas the anicuts have the highest construction costs for all the selected heights. However, based on the past experiences, earthen embankments are not suitable for the semi-arid regions of Rajasthan. The economic evaluation of the proposed structures indicated that the dry stone masonry structures are very cost-effective for the region with a benefit-cost ratio of 3.5:1 and the net present worth value of Rs. 102978. Although the economic indicators ranked the upstream-wall cement masonry structures lower than the dry stone masonry structures, the former has greater stability and strength compared to the latter. In practice, both the cost-effective water-harvesting structures (i.e., dry stone masonry and upstream-wall cement masonry) are gaining wide acceptance and popularity in the region through some nongovernmental organizations, which have adopted the design presented in this paper.

Effects of Tillage Systems on Physical Status and Organic Matter Turnover of the Soil

The cultivation technology for those plant, that play a key role in arable land production need to be renewed in order to reduce production costs and to protect arable land. The modernisation of technologies can only be achieved by applying appropriate tillage systems. Our measurements were carried out on chernozem soil with lime deposits at the Látókép Experimental Station of the Center for Agricultural Sciences, Debrecen University, in long term tillage experiments set up in 1989. We examined the typical physical parameters, the albedo, field capacity, the bulk density of the soil, organic carbon content (humus %) and the measured pH-values in the water solution within the two tillage variations. We have also modelled nitrogen cycle formation in different treatments.A significant difference occured between the albedos of the two soils, which may be the result of significant amounts of stem remaining on the surface in the case of the reduced tillage method. The yellow, waxy stem of maize reflects 21% of the sun’s rays, especially at the beginning of the vegetation period, when its decomposition has only just started. This delys the warming up in early spring, which delays the sowing time of maize and reduces evaporation. In the two tillage variations, the water management characteristics do not differ practically, the wilting point field capacity are in accordance. In reduced tillage methods, the so-called „plough-pan” can be well measured at 15-20 cm, while in winter ploughing it is at 30 cm. The humus % of the soil does not differ in the two tillage variations, but due to the difference in bulk density this means a different humus and organic nitrogen content. The organic nitrogen content is greater in the reduced tillage method. On the basis of pH value evaluations, we could not detect significant differences in the two tillage variations. The organic nitrogen content of areas where reduced tillage method was applied is higher than in areas where conventional winter ploughing was applied.

Nature protection in agricultural landscapes by setting aside unproductive areas and ecotones within arable fields (“Infield Nature Protection Spots”)

Sustainable agriculture must meet ecological challenges. European environmental policy is searching for approaches which achieve the nature conservation goals very efficiently (European Commission 1999). Infield Nature Protection Spots (INPS) is an approach which changes land use on specific parts of crop fields by using set aside which is compulsory in the EU (European Commission 1999). Areas with extreme conditions (e.g. of soil moisture or soil fertility) and parts of fields adjacent to biotopes (wood edges, pond edges) are selected for conversion into nature conservation spots. These areas often are characterised by a high habitat potential for wildlife (Kretschmer et al. 1995). This research project has studied the effects of conservation-oriented set aside on economic and ecological issues. Studies of Skylark Alauda arvensis L. show the importance of infield spots as breeding habitats. Alauda arvensis breeding density in cropped areas ranged from 0.20 to 0.65 pairs per ha, compared with 0.90 to 1.10 per ha for areas of set aside during the same period. This result was believed to be related to the relatively open and heterogeneous vegetation structure of the set aside. Open areas adjoining wood lots provide feeding habitats for Great grey shrike Lanius excubitor L., while wet areas within cropped fields provide summer habitats for amphibians when damaging agricultural operations cease. The habitat of a population of Common tree frog Hyla arborea L. was improved by establishing set aside strips along ponds, which are located within crop fields. Four years after establishing strips, the number of individuals “exploded” in 2001. The discussed case studies show that specific land use changes which are focussed on important habitat parameters (key factors) may lead to a real improvement for wildlife in arable landscapes. Only a little loss of productive arable land, often combined without any economic disadvantages for farmers, occur. Hence, INPS is an approach which conserves the biodiversity of agricultural landscapes very efficiently.

Energy Analysis of Early, Mid and Late 20th Century Swedish Farming Systems: A Local Society Case Study

ABSTRACT Three farming systems, in the same area but at different times in the 20th century, were studied. Production and food consumption were aggregated with an energy index. From 1927 to 1981 total energy inputs to field work increased only slightly, energy in produce per unit of manpower increased seven-fold, work force in agriculture decreased to one-third, productivity of arable land doubled. Productivity of energy embodied in external inputs decreased by 85 per cent from 1927 to 1956; then increased slightly from 1956 to 1981. Questions about possible roles and designs of farming in energy-scarce futures are raised.

Stress/strain processes in a structured unsaturated silty loam Luvisol under different tillage treatments in Germany

In agriculture, the degradation of soil structure by tillage and field traffic is an adverse process causing a reduction in productivity of arable land. In order to manage this problem, various kinds of traffic and tillage systems have been developed. Relatively few studies have examined changes of soil mechanical properties induced by conservation tillage systems. The objectives of this study were to determine the effect of long term reduced tillage on soil strength properties. A field experiment was conducted in Germany on a silty loam Luvisol derived from loess, tilled differently by conventional (ploughed) and conservation (rotary) tillage systems for more than 25 years. In the spring of 1995, plots were compacted by increasing dynamic loads (number of passes × wheel load: 2 × 2.5, 2 × 5 and 6 × 5 Mg) and the soil physical, and mechanical properties were determined by field and laboratory techniques. The repeated deep impact of tillage tools in conventionally treated plots resulted in a permanent destruction of newly formed soil aggregates. This led to a relatively weak soil structure of the tilled horizons as dynamic loads as low as 2.5 Mg induced structural degradation. In the conservation tillage plots, in contrast, a single wheeling event with 2.5 Mg was compensated by a robust aggregate system and did not lead to structural degradation. Thus a higher soil strength due to the robust aggregate system was provided by reduced tillage. Increasing wheel loads and repeated tire passes resulted in an increasing structural degradation of the subsoil in both tillage systems. Since preserved fragments of channels were observed in depth greater than 30 cm in conservation tillage plots, trafficked by 6 × 5 Mg, the conditions for structural recovery are expected to be more favourable with this tillage system than conventional tillage.

Pollution by phosphorus and nitrogen in water streams feeding the Zelivka drinking water reservoir

This case study refers to long term monitoring of Martinicky and Sedlický Brooks, which represent general water-quality characteristics well related to the watershed of the whole Zelivka drinking water reservoir. For a period of more than ten years water-quality indices were systematically monitored at each profile together with actual discharges recorded at selected profiles. It is seen that the only critical pollutants are nutrients, namely nitrate nitrogen and total phosphorus, originating from both urban and agricultural sources, while industrial pollution is relatively marginal in the watershed. Phosphorus concentrations do not display any simple time regularity. Persistent all-year background phosphorus load gives evidence of the urban origin of pollution. Total input of phosphorus into the reservoir came mainly from surface inflows, out of rainfall and out of bottom sediments. Phosphorus was found to be the limiting nutrient for phytoplankton growth and was therefore recognised as the principal element responsible for reservoir eutrophication rates, which could probably be effectively controlled by concerted abatement actions. Most of the watershed born nitrogen pollution has a distinctly non-point (diffuse) character. Typical yearly pattern of nitrate concentrations means distinct and regular increase during end-of-winter and spring period due to processes of mineralization, typical for productive arable land on soils with good drainage properties. The process of state economy transition, which was initiated in 1989, has led to dramatic decrease of fertiliser inputs per hectare of land. Reduced fertilisation of arable land has not yet been reflected in improved quality of surface waters. The proposed strategy for prevention and abatement in the Zelivka reservoir eutrophication should be based on win-win principles applied throughout the entire watershed and, at present, preferentially focused on:phosphorus cycle control and improvement within both the watershed and reservoir water (diminished use of chemicals producing reactive phosphorus compounds, improved phosphorus removal from urban waste water, to prevent phosphorus release from bottom sediments)general soil erosion control and prevention - grassland cultivation on vulnerable areas and buffer zones and subsidy for cultivating plants on arable land even between growing periodsproper maintenance and improvement of treatment plant technology to maintain actual standards of produced drinking water.

Pollution by phosphorus and nitrogen in water streams feeding the Zelivka drinking water reservoir

This case study refers to long term monitoring of Martinicky and Sedlický Brooks, which represent general water-quality characteristics well related to the watershed of the whole Zelivka drinking water reservoir. For a period of more than ten years water-quality indices were systematically monitored at each profile together with actual discharges recorded at selected profiles. It is seen that the only critical pollutants are nutrients, namely nitrate nitrogen and total phosphorus, originating from both urban and agricultural sources, while industrial pollution is relatively marginal in the watershed. Phosphorus concentrations do not display any simple time regularity. Persistent all-year background phosphorus load gives evidence of the urban origin of pollution. Total input of phosphorus into the reservoir came mainly from surface inflows, out of rainfall and out of bottom sediments. Phosphorus was found to be the limiting nutrient for phytoplankton growth and was therefore recognised as the principal element responsible for reservoir eutrophication rates, which could probably be effectively controlled by concerted abatement actions. Most of the watershed bom nitrogen pollution has a distinctly non-point (diffuse) character. Typical yearly pattern of nitrate concentrations means distinct and regular increase during end-of-winter and spring period due to processes of mineralization, typical for productive arable land on soils with good drainage properties. The process of state economy transition, which was initiated in 1989, has led to dramatic decrease of fertiliser inputs per hectare of land. Reduced fertilisation of arable land has not yet been reflected in improved quality of surface waters.The proposed strategy for prevention and abatement in the Zelivka reservoir eutrophication should be based on win-win principles applied throughout the entire watershed and, at present, preferentially focused on:• phosphorus cycle control and improvement within both the watershed and reservoir water (diminished use of chemicals producing reactive phosphorus compounds, improved phosphorus removal from urban waste water, to prevent phosphorus release from bottom sediments)• general soil erosion control and prevention - grassland cultivation on vulnerable areas and buffer zones and subsidy for cultivating plants on arable land even between growing periods• proper maintenance and improvement of treatment plant technology to maintain actual standards of produced drinking water.

Impact of Funnel Flow on Contaminant Transport in Sandy Soils: Numerical Simulation

AbstractAgrichemicals have played an essential role in maintaining the productivity of arable lands in modern agriculture. Recently, it was found that preferential flow could greatly enhance the leaching of agrichemicals into groundwater. This study investigated how contaminant transport would be influenced by funnel‐type preferential flow paths in a sandy vadose zone. Numerical simulations were conducted in four 12‐m‐wide by 6‐m‐deep two‐dimensional hypothetical soil profiles with embedded coarse sand layers. The soil layering structures in these profiles were generated according to what was observed in the vadose zone of a Plainfield sand (sandy, mixed, mesic Typic Udipsamment) in central Wisconsin. Corresponding simulations were conducted in one‐dimensional profiles as controls. Results showed that contaminant breakthrough time in the two‐dimensional profiles was only 25% of that in one‐dimensional homogeneous profiles. The ratio of the total mass leached from the two‐dimensional profile to that from the one‐dimensional profile increased exponentially as the water application rate decreased. This implies that: (i) the impact of funnel flow on contaminant transport is most drastic when the net infiltration is low; and (ii) minimizing excess leaching by carefully controlling the water budget alone might not prevent groundwater contamination. For a pesticide with a degradation coefficient of 3 × 10−7 s−1 and an adsorption coefficient of 0.5 cm3 g−1 in the top 30 cm and 0.05 cm3 g−1 from 30 to 600 cm, about 4% of the total mass would reach the groundwater through two‐dimensional funnel flow paths with an averaged daily net infiltration rate of 1.15 mm d−1.

Studies on the Degradation and Rehabilitation in Productivity of Arable Land : Especially Concerns with Soil Degradation and Its Rehabilitation from Desertification and/or Soil Salinization

Studies on the Degradation and Rehabilitation in Productivity of Arable Land : Especially Concerns with Soil Degradation and Its Rehabilitation from Desertification and/or Soil Salinization