Aqueous Battery System Research Articles

Nanosized and metastable molybdenum oxides as negative electrode materials for durable high-energy aqueous Li-ion batteries

Significance This study describes a high-energy and durable aqueous battery system with metastable and nanosized Mo-based oxides used as high-capacity negative electrodes. A wider electrochemical window is achieved with concentrated aqueous electrolytes through which highly reversible Li storage without the decomposition of water molecules is achieved for the Mo-based oxides. A full cell with an Mn-based oxide shows good capacity retention over 2,000 cycles. X-ray absorption spectroscopy reveals that the solid-state redox reaction of Mo ions reversibly proceeds in aqueous electrolytes for the metastable Mo oxide. This study opens a way to develop high-energy, durable, and safe batteries on the basis of metastable and nanosized oxides with aqueous electrolyte solutions.

Suitability of Ethyl Cellulose As a Binder in Positive Electrode of Aqueous Battery

Novel materials for energy storage devices need to be affordable, durable, safe and environmentally friendly. PVDF, which is the most popular polymer used as a binder in battery cathode electrodes, requires the use of and toxic solvents for processing, such as N-methyl-pyrrolidone (NMP).1 Ethyl cellulose is a biodegradable and water-insoluble polymer. Ethyl cellulose based slurry can be prepared using ethanol as solvent, which makes the process cheaper and more sustainable. Replacing PVDF with more environmentally friendly binder like ethyl cellulose in positive electrode of aqueous battery systems would be beneficial in many ways. It would shorten the assembly procedure due to high speed of solvent evaporation, there are no strict requirements for humidity control and the recycling procedure is easier as there are no fluorinated compounds.2 Therefore, this replacement would enable to produce safer and cheaper energy storage devices.In this work electrodes with different composition have been described using galvanostatic charging-discharging and cyclic voltammetry. LiMn2O4 (LMO) has been used as active material for cathode, carbon black Super P as conductive additive and PDVF or ethyl cellulose as a binder. The electrodes were prepared using different mass ratios of conductive additive and binder to evaluate the performance of this sustainable polymer. Using ethyl cellulose as a binder, discharge capacity 100 mAhg− 1 was achieved at 0.2C rate for LMO cathode which is comparable to the results obtained with PVDF as a binder. 500 cycles at the rate of 1C showed somewhat better capacity retention for electrodes prepared using PVDF. However, the results show that ethyl cellulose is a promising option to replace PVDF as cathode binder in aqueous systems. This binder promising option in the application of aqueous redox flow battery with solid boosters, where large amount of solid charge storage material is used in thanks to increase the capacity of the system.The research was supported by the Estonian Research Council grant PUTJD956 and Magnus Ehrnrooth Foundation.

Towards Realizing High-Voltage Aqueous Zinc Batteries: An Investigation of the Zinc Anode in Concentrated Acetate-Based Electrolytes

Zinc-based aqueous battery systems are attractive for grid storage applications due to the inherent electrolyte safety, material non-toxicity, low cost, high volumetric capacity of zinc and the low polarizability of the zinc anode in aqueous solutions. Despite these key features, they possess lower energy density when compared to lithium-ion batteries primarily due to the limited working potential range for aqueous electrolytes. In addition, zinc hosts a slew of problems such as inhomogeneous material distribution upon cycling and the formation of inactive zinc species and dendrites, all of which contribute to capacity loss and ultimately, cell failure. Water-in-salt electrolytes (WiSE) have been found to be an effective strategy to expand the electrochemical window of aqueous electrolytes for high energy density aqueous-based batteries, including zinc batteries. There is a growing amount of literature on highly concentrated acetate-based electrolytes as low-cost and non-toxic WiSE for lithium, potassium, sodium and magnesium and zinc battery systems. However, work is scarce on the nature of zinc electrochemistry, morphology and reversibility in these concentrated electrolytes at realistic current densities (> 1 mA/cm2) and higher zinc utilization. Understanding the electrochemical behavior of zinc in this electrolyte system will significantly aid in the development of a high voltage zinc aqueous battery.In this work, the zinc electrochemical performance and surface morphology is studied in highly concentrated bi-salt potassium acetate (KOAc)-zinc acetate (Zn(OAc)2) electrolytes. The impact of the high concentration on the electrochemical working window of the electrolytes is measured using potential sweep and constant-current techniques. As the acetate concentration is varied from 1 m to 32 m, the largest electrochemical window is measured at 3.33 V for 31 m KOAc+ 1 m Zn(OAc)2. Zinc half cells are cycled at current densities of 1-5 mA/cm2 to examine zinc reversibility with respect to zinc depth-of-discharge (DOD) in these electrolytes. The zinc discharge product is visualized by in-operando optical microscopy as a function of the potential and is observed to be a zinc plating/stripping phenomenon in contrast to zinc dissolution/precipitation typically observed in alkaline media. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction studies display the minor presence of zinc oxide and zinc hydroxide after repeated cycling. Cloud point measurements are performed to measure the phase stability of these electrolytes at 5-25ºC as a function of acetate concentration, which show that concentrations below (and including) 27 m KOAc + 1 m Zn(OAc)2 does not induce crystallization at these temperatures. Preliminary measurements using spectroscopic techniques such as Raman and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy are conducted to elucidate ion solvation structures as a function of acetate concentration. Overall, the current and proposed studies are fruitful in understanding the relationship between zinc anode and the concentrated acetate-based electrolytes in the pursuit of a high-voltage aqueous zinc battery.

Water-in-salt widens the electrochemical stability window: Thermodynamic and kinetic factors

Originating from the 1.23 V potential window of pure water, the narrow electrochemical stability window (ESW) has always been the most stubborn problem for aqueous battery systems. However, the water-in-salt system magically widens the ESW of aqueous electrolyte from 1.23 V to above 3 V by the super-concentrated LiTFSI solution. The mechanisms of widening aqueous battery ESW have been a crucial topic, in which the significant factors, including unique solid–electrolyte interface, solvation structure, and others, have been highlighted. Here, we specify the concept of ESW in detail and review the influence factors of ESW in the water-in-salt system from both thermodynamic and kinetic perspectives to explore the importance of each factor.

(NH4 )2 V7 O16 Microbricks as a Novel Anode for Aqueous Lithium-Ion Battery with Good Cyclability.

Searching for novel anode materials to address the issues of poor cycle stability in the aqueous lithium-ion battery system is highly desirable. In this work, ammonium vanadium bronze (NH4 )2 V7 O16 with brick-like morphology has been investigated as an anode material for aqueous lithium-ion batteries and Li+ /Na+ hybrid ion batteries. The two novel full cell systems (NH4 )2 V7 O16 ||Li2 SO4 ||LiMn2 O4 and (NH4 )2 V7 O16 ||Na2 SO4 ||LiMn2 O4 both demonstrate good rate capability and excellent cycling performance. A capacity retention of 78.61 % after 500 cycles at 300 mA g-1 was demonstrated in the (NH4 )2 V7 O16 ||Li2 SO4 ||LiMn2 O4 system, whereas no capacity attenuation is observed in the (NH4 )2 V7 O16 ||Na2 SO4 ||LiMn2 O4 system. The reaction mechanisms of the (NH4 )2 V7 O16 electrode and impedance variation of the two full cells were also researched. The excellent cycling stability suggests that layered (NH4 )2 V7 O16 can be a promising anode material for aqueous rechargeable lithium-ion batteries.

Development of iodate-based high oxidation state cathode for aqueous battery system

We present the synthesis of lead iodate (Pb(IO3)2) using precipitation reactions for the fabrication of cathodes. Pb(IO3)2-Zn reserve batteries are fabricated in 3D-printed battery casings. Pb(IO3)2-nano carbon composites show higher stability and more consistent performance than the mixtures of these compounds. The reaction products and cell performances are dependent on electrolytes and discharge rates. These primary batteries exhibit an output voltage around 1.6 V when acid-salt water dual electrolytes are used. At low discharge rates, the iodate gets reduced to I2, yet under high-rate discharge, PbI2 is produced. The cathode material Pb(IO3)2 hence demonstrates specific capacities between 416 and 550 mAh g−1. Only the IO3− takes part in the redox reactions and provides the capacity. Hence, Pb could be replaced with other metals, and the chemistry here could be applied to other insoluble iodate salts for environmental concerns and lower costs.

Progress and Challenges in Industrially Promising Chemical Vapour Deposition Processes for the Synthesis of Large-Area Metal Oxide Electrode Materials Designed for Aqueous Battery Systems.

The goal of the battery research community is to reach sustainable batteries with high performance, meaning energy and power densities close to the theoretical limits, excellent stability, high safety, and scalability to enable the large-scale production of batteries at a competitive cost. In that perspective, chemical vapour deposition processes, which can operate safely under high-volume conditions at relatively low cost, should allow aqueous batteries to become leading candidates for energy storage applications. Research interest and developments in aqueous battery technologies have significantly increased the last five years, including monovalent (Li+, Na+, K+) and multivalent systems (Mg2+, Zn2+, Al3+). However, their large-scale production is still somewhat inhibited, since it is not possible to get electrodes with robust properties that yield optimum performance of the electrodes per surface area. In this review paper, we present the progress and challenges in the growth of electrodes through chemical vapour deposition at atmospheric pressure, which is one procedure that is proven to be industrially competitive. As battery systems attract the attention of many researchers, this review article might help those who work on large-scale electrical energy storage.

Saccharin Anion Acts as a "Traffic Assistant" of Zn2+ to Achieve a Long-Life and Dendritic-Free Zinc Plate Anode.

Due to the great advantages of low cost, high capacity, and excellent safety, the Zn metal is a promising candidate material for rechargeable aqueous battery systems. However, its practical applications have been restricted by the uncontrollable dendrite growth and electrode side reactions (such as corrosion, passivation, and hydrogen evolution reactions) during the plating process. Herein, we reveal that the dendrite growth would expose the electrode to more highly active tips, exacerbating the passivation of the electrode and the decomposition of the electrolyte by in situ optical microscopies. We propose a low-cost, nontoxic, low-concentration (less than 1 g/L), and effective electrolyte additive, saccharin sodium, which can guide an even Zn deposition without obvious electrode side reactions in the charge/discharge process. The saccharin anion acts as a "traffic assistant" of Zn2+ and demonstrates its great potential for practical application. The assembled Zn symmetrical battery shows an excellent cycling performance at a high current density and capacity (an extremely long cycle life over 3800 h is obtained at 5 mA/cm2 and 8 mA h/cm2, and 20 mA/cm2 and 5 mA h/cm2 show a lifetime over 800 h), and the full cell (coupled to an AC electrode) presents a stable cycle life with a capacity retention of 86.4% even after 8000 cycles at 5 mA/cm2. The saccharin sodium proposed in this work is promising to solve the anode problems in advanced Zn batteries.

Manganese‐Based Materials for Rechargeable Batteries beyond Lithium‐Ion

AbstractThe newly emerging rechargeable batteries beyond lithium‐ion, including aqueous and nonaqueous Na‐/K‐/Zn‐/Mg‐/Ca‐/Al‐ion batteries, are rapidly developing toward large‐scale energy storage application. The properties of electrode materials are determinant for electrochemical performance of the batteries. By virtue of the prominent features of low cost, non‐toxicity, high voltage, and rich valence states, Mn‐based electrode materials have attracted increasing attention. The big family of Mn‐based materials with rich composition and polymorphs, provides great possibilities for exploring and designing advanced electrode materials for these emerging rechargeable batteries. In this review, three main categories of Mn‐based materials, including oxides, Prussian blue analogous, and polyanion type materials, are systematically introduced to offer a comprehensive overview about the development and applications of Mn‐based materials in various emerging rechargeable battery systems. Their crystal structure, electrochemical performance, and reaction mechanism are highlighted. In addition, the key issues encountered by many Mn‐based materials, including Jahn–Teller distortion, Mn dissolution, crystal water, impact of electrolyte, etc., are also discussed. Finally, challenges and perspectives on the future development of manganese‐based materials are provided as well. It is believed this review is timely and important to further promote exploration and applications of Mn‐based materials in both aqueous and nonaqueous rechargeable battery systems beyond lithium‐ion.

Electrochemical Driven Phase Segregation Enabled Dual-Ion Removal Battery Deionization Electrode.

Battery deionization (BDI) offers a powerful platform for integrating water treatment and energy conversion. Exploring novel BDI electrode materials with high energy storage capacity and high efficiency for both cations and anions removal is the key to advancing the BDI technique. Herein, we report the first BDI electrode material capable of simultaneously removing Cl- (58.4 mg g-1) and Na+ (8.7 mg g-1) in water with a reversible capacity of 160 mAh g-1. In situ powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) unravels that the dual-ion removal capability is attributed to a novel reversible electrochemical driven phase segregation reaction mechanism between NaBi3O4Cl2 and the in situ formed metallic Bi. The unique dual-ion storage capability demonstrated with the NaBi3O4Cl2 electrode indicates that exploring electrochemical reversible phase segregation electrode material holds great promise for advancing the BDI electrode for future desalination techniques and aqueous rechargeable battery systems.

An Ultralow Temperature Aqueous Battery with Proton Chemistry

AbstractConventional aqueous batteries usually suffer from serious capacity loss under subzero conditions owing to the freeze of electrolytes. To realize the utilization of aqueous batteries in extremely cold climates, low‐temperature aqueous battery systems have to be developed. Herein, an aqueous Pb‐quinone battery based on p‐chloranil/reduced graphene oxide (PCHL‐rGO) in H2SO4 electrolyte is developed. Such aqueous Pb/PCHL‐rGO batteries display H+ insertion chemistry, which endows the batteries with fast reaction kinetics and high rate capability. In addition, the hydrogen bonds between water molecules can be significantly damaged in electrolyte by modulating the interaction between SO42− and water molecules, lowering the freezing point of electrolyte. As a result, the Pb/PCHL‐rGO batteries deliver extraordinary electrochemical performance even at −70 °C. This work will broaden the horizons of aqueous batteries and open up new opportunities to construct low‐temperature aqueous batteries.

An Ultralow Temperature Aqueous Battery with Proton Chemistry

Conventional aqueous batteries usually suffer from serious capacity loss under subzero conditions due to the freeze of electrolytes. To realize the utilization of aqueous batteries in extremely cold climates, low-temperature aqueous battery systems have to be developed. Herein, an aqueous Pb-quinone battery based on p-chloranil/reduced graphene oxide (PCHL-rGO) in H2SO4 electrolyte is developed. Such aqueous Pb/PCHL-rGO batteries display H+ insertion chemistry, which endow the batteries with fast reaction kinetics and high rate capability. In addition, the hydrogen bonds between water molecules can be significantly damaged in electrolyte by modulating the interaction between SO42- and water molecules, lowering the freezing point of electrolyte. As a result, the Pb/PCHL-rGO batteries deliver extraordinary electrochemical performance even at -70 °C. This work will broaden the horizons of aqueous batteries and open up new opportunities to construct low-temperature aqueous batteries.

Anticatalytic Strategies to Suppress Water Electrolysis in Aqueous Batteries.

Aqueous electrolytes are the leading candidate to meet the surging demand for safe and low-cost storage batteries. Aqueous electrolytes facilitate more sustainable battery technologies due to the attributes of being nonflammable, environmentally benign, and cost effective. Yet, water's narrow electrochemical stability window remains the primary bottleneck for the development of high-energy aqueous batteries with long cycle life and infallible safety. Water's electrolysis leads to either hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) or oxygen evolution reaction (OER), which causes a series of dire consequences, including poor Coulombic efficiency, short device longevity, and safety issues. These are often showstoppers of a new aqueous battery technology besides the low energy density. Prolific progress has been made in the understanding of HER and OER from both catalysis and battery fields. Unfortunately, a systematic review on these advances from a battery chemistry standpoint is lacking. This review provides in-depth discussions on the mechanisms of water electrolysis on electrodes, where we summarize the critical influencing factors applicable for a broad spectrum of aqueous battery systems. Recent progress and existing challenges on suppressing water electrolysis are discussed, and our perspectives on the future development of this field are provided.

An Energetic CuS-Cu Battery System Based on CuS Nanosheet Arrays.

The development of low-cost and high-energy aqueous battery technologies is of significance for renewable and stationary energy applications. However, this development has been bottlenecked by poor conductivity, low capacity, and limited cycling stability of existing electrode materials. In this work, we report on an energetic aqueous copper ion system based on CuS nanosheet arrays, taking profit of high conductivity of CuS and efficient charge carrier of copper ions. Electrochemical results reveal a high capacity of 510 mAh g-1, robust rate capability of 497 mAh g-1 at a high rate of 7.5 A g-1, and ultrastable cycling by retaining 91% of the initial capacity over 2500 cycles. The charge-storage mechanism was systematically investigated by ex situ and in situ techniques involving a reversible transition from CuS to Cu7S4 and to Cu2S through the redox of Cu2+/Cu+. Moreover, we demonstrate a hybrid ion battery consisting of CuS positive electrode and Zn negative electrode, which affords an energy and power of 286 Wh kg-1 and 900 W kg-1, respectively, on the basis of both electrodes, exceeding many aqueous battery systems.

Electrochemical Investigation of Phenethylammonium Bismuth Iodide as Anode in Aqueous Zn2+ Electrolytes.

Despite the high potential impact of aqueous battery systems, fundamental characteristics such as cost, safety, and stability make them less feasible for large-scale energy storage systems. One of the main barriers encountered in the commercialization of aqueous batteries is the development of large-scale electrodes with high reversibility, high rate capability, and extended cycle stability at low operational and maintenance costs. To overcome some of these issues, the current research work is focused on a new class of material based on phenethylammonium bismuth iodide on fluorine doped SnO2-precoated glass substrate via aerosol-assisted chemical vapor deposition, a technology that is industrially competitive. The anode materials were electrochemically investigated in Zn2+ aqueous electrolytes as a proof of concept, which presented a specific capacity of 220 mAh g−1 at 0.4 A g−1 with excellent stability after 50 scans and capacity retention of almost 100%.

Solid electrolyte interphase in water-in-salt electrolytes

The water-in-salt strategy successfully expands the electrochemical window of the aqueous electrolyte from 1.23 to ∼3.0 V, which can lead to a breakthrough in the energy output of the aqueous battery system while maintaining the advantage of high safety. The expanded electrochemical window of the water-in-salt electrolytes can be ascribed to the decreased water activity and the solid electrolyte interphase formed on the anode. The solid electrolyte interphase in the aqueous system is not fully understood, and the basic composition, the structure, and the formation mechanism are still cloaked in mystery. This perspective summarizes the published research with emphasis on the most possible formation mechanism and composition of the interphase layer in the aqueous system. Further understanding of the interphase as well as rounded assessment of the water-in-salt electrolyte in practical operating conditions is encouraged. The full understanding of the interface will guide the design of aqueous electrolytes and help to build novel aqueous batteries with high safety and high energy density.

A porous puckered V2O5 polymorph as new high performance cathode material for aqueous rechargeable zinc batteries

Aqueous rechargeable zinc batteries are getting increasing attention for large-scale energy storage owing to their advantages in terms of cost, environmental friendliness and safety. Here, the layered puckered γ′-V2O5 polymorph with a porous morphology is firstly introduced as cathode for an aqueous zinc battery system in a binary Zn2+/Li+ electrolyte. The Zn|| γ′-V2O5 cell delivers high capacities of 240 and 190 mAh g−1 at current densities of 29 and 147 mA g−1, respectively, and remarkable cycling stability in the 1.6 V–0.7 V voltage window (97% retention after 100 cycles at 0.15 A g−1). The detailed structural evolution during first discharge-charge and subsequent cycling is investigated using X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy. We demonstrate a reaction mechanism based on a selective Li insertion in the 1.6 V–1.0 V voltage range. It involves a reversible exchange of 0.8 Li+ in γ′-V2O5 and the same structural response as the one reported in lithiated organic electrolyte. However, in the extended 1.6 V–0.7 V voltage range, this work puts forward a concomitant and gradual phase transformation from γ′-V2O5 to zinc pyrovanadate Zn3V2O7(OH)2.2H2O (ZVO) during cycling. Such mechanism involving the in-situ formation of ZVO, known as an efficient Zn and Li intercalation material, explains the high electrochemical performance here reported for the Zn|| γ′-V2O5 cell. This work highlights the peculiar layered-puckered γ′-V2O5 polymorph outperforms the conventional α-V2O5 with a huge improvement of capacity of 240 mAh g−1 vs 80 mAh g−1 in the same electrolyte and voltage window.

Redox-active zinc thiolates for low-cost aqueous rechargeable Zn-ion batteries.

Aqueous zinc-ion batteries (AZIBs) are promising candidates for large-scale electrical energy storage due to the inexpensive, safe, and non-toxic nature of zinc. One key area that requires further development is electrode materials that store Zn2+ ions with high reversibility and fast kinetics. To determine the viability of low-cost organosulfur compounds as OEMs for AZIBs, we investigate how structural modification affects electrochemical performance in Zn-thiolate complexes 1 and 2. Remarkably, modification of one thiolate in 1 to sulfide in 2 reduces the voltage hysteresis from 1.04 V to 0.15 V. While 1 exhibits negligible specific capacity due to the formation of insulating DMcT polymers, 2 delivers a capacity of 107 mA h g−1 with a primary discharge plateau at 1.1 V vs. Zn2+/Zn. Spectroscopic studies of 2 suggest a Zn2+ and H+ co-insertion mechanism with Zn2+ as the predominant charge carrier. Capacity fading in Zn-2 cells likely results from the formation of (i) soluble H+ insertion products and (ii) non-redox-active side products. Increasing electrolyte concentration and using a Nafion membrane significantly enhances the stability of 2 by suppressing H+ insertion. Our findings provide insight into the molecular design strategies to reduce the polarization potential and improve the cycling stability of the thiolate/disulfide redox couple in aqueous battery systems.

Molecular Crowding Electrolytes for High-Voltage Aqueous Batteries

Replacing flammable nonaqueous electrolytes with non-flammable aqueous electrolytes is critical to achieve safe, low-cost and eco-friendly Li-ion batteries. However, the voltage window of an aqueous Li-ion battery is limited by the thermodynamic stability window of water (1.23 V), which limits the energy density of the aqueous Li-ion batteries. Recently developed LiTFSI-based “water-in-salt” electrolytes with highly-concentrated salts (>21 m) have expanded the electrochemical stability window of water to over 3.0 V by decreasing the amount of free water molecules and creating artificial solid-electrode interfaces, however, raise concerns of cost and toxicity.Molecular crowding is a common phenomenon in living cells where water activity is substantially reduced as a consequence of the changes in the water hydrogen-bonding structuring in the presence of molecular crowding agents. Herein, we introduce a molecular crowding electrolyte using water-miscible polymer poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) as the crowding agent to decrease water activity, thereby allowing a high operational cell voltage (3.2 V) with a low salt concentration (2 m). Aqueous Li4Ti5O12/LiMn2O4 full cells with stable specific energies between 75-110 Wh kg-1 were demonstrated over 300 cycles. Extensive electrolyte characterizations including nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), online electrochemical mass spectroscopy (OEMS) and density functional theory (DFT)-molecular dynamic (MD) simulation were used to confirm the HER suppression effect of the molecular crowding aqueous electrolyte.The molecular crowding electrolyte enables numerous negative electrode materials that can not be used in traditional aqueous battery systems. This work provides a new platform for designing aqueous electrolytes with high stability for low-cost and sustainable energy storage.

Layered CsTi2NbO7 based anode materials: Effect of interlayered ions on the electrochemical properties

Layered anode materials based on aqueous electrolytes have been studied in a three-electrode system. MTi2NbO7 (M = H、Li、Na、K) was prepared by different ion exchange of precursors CsTi2NbO7, and the crystal structures and skeleton structures of the as-prepared materials were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and laser Raman spectroscopy (LRS). K3[Fe(CN)6] aqueous solution was used as the electrolyte to characterize the electrochemical properties, and the effect of interlayer cation transfer on the performance of the whole process was studied. The results show that NaTi2NbO7 exhibits good electrochemical performance, which can be deduced from the Cyclic voltammetry, Galvanostatic charge–discharge and Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. It may be caused due to the different hydration radius, electrical conductivity and mobility of interlayer cations. Although K+ has a smaller hydration radius, it is easier to form electric double layer capacitor (EDLC) on the surface of the material to show capacitive properties, rather than all insert the crystal structure and show the battery behavior. Noteworthy, we combine the size of the interlayer channels, the interaction force between the interlayer cations and the laminate, Na+ in such layered materials shows some obvious advantages from relationship between the structure and performance. This work provides an important reference for the future development of layered anode materials in aqueous solution systems or organic battery systems.