Apennine Mountains Research Articles

Performance of the healthcare facilities during the 2016–2017 Central Italy seismic sequence

This paper presents an overview on the response of the healthcare system in the area mostly affected by the 2016 Central Italy earthquake based on specific surveys and information from local health authorities. The authors collected in the field information on the seismic response capacity of the healthcare system. They surveyed five hospital complexes from medium to small dimension whose maximum capacity was up to 50 beds. This type of hospitals are representative of those ones present in the small towns located along the Apennines mountain range, usually including few buildings (i.e. 3–5) constructed in different periods and with different structural types. In all the surveyed hospitals there were partially or totally unusable buildings causing severe limitations to the functionality of the healthcare services, forcing to move many patients to other hospitals and to stop outpatient treatment. This was due mainly to severe damage to non-structural components and, in some cases, to moderate damage to structural components. In the present paper, two hospital case studies, namely “Tolentino” and “San Severino” hospitals, both located in Marche region, are analysed and discussed in detail in order to better understand their performance to the earthquakes, by also estimating their seismic risk via simplified methods, including the WHO Safety Index and the Cosenza and Manfredi (in: Fajfar and Krawinkler (eds) Seismic design methodologies for the next generation of codes, Balkema, Rotterdam, 1997) damage index.

Molecular identification of imported red wood ant populations in the Campigna Biogenetic Nature Reserve (Foreste Casentinesi National Park, Italy)

During the second half of the XIX century, several species of red wood ants (Formica rufa group) were used as biological control agents and introduced to the Italian Apennine mountains where they were formerly absent. Among these, Formica lugubris was the most widely introduced alien species. In 1996, however, a taxonomic revision defined two sibling species, F. lugubris and F. paralugubris, each with distinct ecological and behavioural characteristics that differently affect their spatial distribution. The first one can be both monodomous and polydomous with a low number of interlinked nests, and it is obliged to mate by nuptial flight. Conversely, F. paralugubris is usually unicolonial, with a considerable portion of intranest mates. Discrimination between the two species using morphological characters is possible but requires considerable taxonomic expertise. Restriction analysis, whereby presence/absence of a BamHI site in the mitochondrial DNA COI gene results in different restriction profiles, provides an alternative efficient method to unambiguously distinguish F. lugubris from F. paralugubris. We applied this method to identify ant species introduced to several locations in the Campigna Forest of the Foreste Casentinesi, Monte Falterona and Campigna National Park, one of the Italian locations mostly affected by alien ant introductions. This area has considerable ecological relevance. Given the potential impact of ants on native arthropod communities, it is of the most importance to identify which species has been introduced. Contrary to previous assumptions, results of our analysis clearly show that only F. paralugubris is present in the National park.

Following the cold: geographical differentiation between interglacial refugia and speciation in the arcto‐alpine species complex Bombus monticola (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

AbstractCold‐adapted species are expected to have reached their largest distribution range during a part of the Ice Ages whereas postglacial warming has led to their range contracting toward high‐latitude and high‐altitude areas. This has resulted in an extant allopatric distribution of populations and possibly to trait differentiations (selected or not) or even speciation. Assessing inter‐refugium differentiation or speciation remains challenging for such organisms because of sampling difficulties (several allopatric populations) and disagreements on species concept. In the present study, we assessed postglacial inter‐refugia differentiation and potential speciation among populations of one of the most common arcto‐alpine bumblebee species in European mountains, Bombus monticola Smith, 1849. Based on mitochondrial DNA/nuclear DNA markers and eco‐chemical traits, we performed integrative taxonomic analysis to evaluate alternative species delimitation hypotheses and to assess geographical differentiation between interglacial refugia and speciation in arcto‐alpine species. Our results show that trait differentiations occurred between most Southern European mountains (i.e. Alps, Balkan, Pyrenees, and Apennines) and Arctic regions. We suggest that the monticola complex actually includes three species: B. konradini stat.n. status distributed in Italy (Central Apennine mountains), B. monticola with five subspecies, including B. monticola mathildis ssp.n. distributed in the North Apennine mountains ; and B. lapponicus. Our results support the hypothesis that post‐Ice Age periods can lead to speciation in cold‐adapted species through distribution range contraction. We underline the importance of an integrative taxonomic approach for rigorous species delimitation, and for evolutionary study and conservation of taxonomically challenging taxa.

A first assessment of genetic variability in the longhorn beetle Rosalia alpina (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) from the Italian Apennines

The Rosalia longicorn (Rosalia alpina) is a strictly protected saproxylic beetle, widely distributed in Central and Southern Europe and mainly associated with ancient beech forests. To improve knowledge about the conservation status of R. alpina in Italy, available molecular markers (microsatellites and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I(COI)) were tested for the first time on Italian populations. The study was performed in four sampling sites distributed in two areas placed in Northern (“Foreste Casentinesi” National Park) and Central Apennines (“Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise” National Park) where populational data about Rosalia longicorn were collected in the framework of the European LIFE MIPP Project. The genetic relationship among Apennine and Central/South-eastern European populations was explored by a comparison with mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) data from literature. Microsatellite markers were only partially informative when applied to R. alpina Italian individuals, although providing some preliminary indication on an extensive gene flow among populations from the Apennines and local ongoing processes of genetic erosion. Genetic data are consistent with previous ecological data suggesting that the maintenance of variability in this species could be related to both habitat continuity and preservation of large senescent or standing dead trees in forests. Finally, a peculiar origin of the Apennine populations of R. alpina from a putative “Glacial Refugium” in Italy was inferred through COI data. The high genetic distance scored among the analysed populations and those from Central and South-eastern Europe indicates that the R. alpina deme from Apennine Mountains might represent a relevant conservation unit in Europe. Further genetic analyses will allow assessing other possible conservation units of R. alpina and, thus, defining large-scale conservation strategies to protect this endangered longhorn beetle in Europe.

High cryptic diversity in aquatic insects: an integrative approach to study the enigmatic Leuctra inermis species group (Plecoptera)

Within the genus Leuctra (Plecoptera: Leuctridae) the L. inermis species group comprises 17 – 18 species in which males lack the characteristic tergal abdominal ornamentation of many Leuctra species, and females have an accessory receptacle in the dorsal portion of the vagina. Taxonomically the group is challenging, and congruence of existing morphological species concepts and phylogenetic relationships of taxa is hitherto not assessed. Here, we estimate phylogenetic relations of morphologically defined species by concatenated maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian combined species tree and species delimitation analysis. We aim to clarify the status of 15 European species of the L. inermis group and 2 potential new species. To this end, we infer relationships on a 2580 bp, 4 loci (mtCOI, mt12S, nuH3, nu28S) molecular sequence dataset. We further depict abdominal terminalia with their morphological characteristics for 15 L. inermis group species, and describe 2 micro-endemic species from the Southern Alps and the Apennine Mountains corroborated by distinct morphological and molecular characteristics. Our analyses support close relationships of the L. inermis group species and corroborate the a priori morphological definition of all included species. However, relationships among species are largely unresolved, indicative of a putatively recent diversification of the group. Phylogenetic inference suggests sister taxon relationships between morphologically similar species. Morphological variation within single species is linked to geographical location of populations. Our results thus suggest that further study on the differentiation of geographically isolated populations as distinct lineages or species is warranted. Based on the high number of regional endemic lineages and species we highlight the necessity to protect high-altitude aquatic habitats.

Seismic actions on structures in the near-source region of the 2016 central Italy sequence

The central Italy seismic sequence began in the latter half of 2016 and continued well into 2017, causing severe damage in the villages close to the source and causing hundreds of casualties. It is a sequence especially interesting to study, from the perspective of seismic actions experienced by structures, because it saw nine M ≥ 5.0 earthquakes within a period of 5 months, rupturing parts of the complex central Apennine mountain range fault system. Consequently, some of the main earthquake engineering issues that arose are the multiple locations where the code-mandated seismic actions were exceeded in more than one of the main events of the sequence and the number of pre- and low-code existing buildings that suffered heavy damage or collapse due to the intensity of individual earthquakes and the cumulative effect of repeated damaging shocks. The present article picks up on these topics and uses probabilistic seismic hazard, as well as the multitude of strong ground motion recordings available from the sequence, to provide a discussion on certain issues, that are all related to the topical subject of seismic actions. These issues are: (1) the unsurprising exceedance of code spectra in the epicentral areas of strong earthquakes; (2) the particular spectral shape and damaging potential of near-source, pulse-like, ground motions, possibly related to rupture directivity; and (3) structural non-linear behaviour in the wake of a sequence that produces repeated strong shaking without the necessary respite for repair and retrofit operations.

Quantifying decay progression of deadwood in Mediterranean mountain forests

Abstract Forests contribute to the sequestration of organic carbon (C). A key role in forest C cycling is played by deadwood. While a broad range of literature on deadwood decay (above-ground) exists, the mechanisms occurring in the transition zone from deadwood to the humus are poorly understood. In particular, scarce information is available on the temporal patterns of wood compounds (such as lignin and cellulose) during decay processes. Our objective was to provide a deeper understanding on deadwood decay in a Mediterranean montane environment by focussing on semi-natural forests of Fagus sylvatica L. (beech). The decay process was studied in a field experiment (in the Majella mountains, Apennine Mountains, Italy) among an altitudinal transect at different climatic conditions. Beech wood blocks (mass, cellulose, lignin) having all an equal in size (5 cm × 5 cm × 2 cm) were placed in soil mesocosms to investigate over one year changes in the overall mass, cellulose and lignin content. The sites were along an altitudinal gradient, reflecting different climatic conditions. The effect of exposure (north- vs. south-facing slopes) was also considered. Deadwood, cellulose and lignin dynamics were related to soil parameters (pH, grain size, moisture, temperature) and climate data. Deadwood decayed very fast and followed an exponential trend. The decay rate constants of the deadwood mass significantly (positively) correlated with air temperature and soil moisture: the lower the temperature, the lower the evapotranspiration, the higher the moisture availability, and the higher the decay rates. Lignin decayed more slowly than cellulose, resulting in average decay rate constants (k) between 0.368 and 0.382 y−1. Soil properties and topographic traits (slope and exposure) strongly influenced the decay processes. At south-facing sites (having an altitude

Survival and divergence in a small group: The extraordinary genomic history of the endangered Apennine brown bear stragglers

About 100 km east of Rome, in the central Apennine Mountains, a critically endangered population of ∼50 brown bears live in complete isolation. Mating outside this population is prevented by several 100 km of bear-free territories. We exploited this natural experiment to better understand the gene and genomic consequences of surviving at extremely small population size. We found that brown bear populations in Europe lost connectivity since Neolithic times, when farming communities expanded and forest burning was used for land clearance. In central Italy, this resulted in a 40-fold population decline. The overall genomic impact of this decline included the complete loss of variation in the mitochondrial genome and along long stretches of the nuclear genome. Several private and deleterious amino acid changes were fixed by random drift; predicted effects include energy deficit, muscle weakness, anomalies in cranial and skeletal development, and reduced aggressiveness. Despite this extreme loss of diversity, Apennine bear genomes show nonrandom peaks of high variation, possibly maintained by balancing selection, at genomic regions significantly enriched for genes associated with immune and olfactory systems. Challenging the paradigm of increased extinction risk in small populations, we suggest that random fixation of deleterious alleles (i) can be an important driver of divergence in isolation, (ii) can be tolerated when balancing selection prevents random loss of variation at important genes, and (iii) is followed by or results directly in favorable behavioral changes.

Climate evolution and forcing during the last 40 ka from the oscillations in Apennine glaciers and high mountain lakes, Italy

ABSTRACTThe results of studies carried out on the variations of glaciers and lakes in the higher Apennines during the last 40 ka are considered for correlation with some climate forcing agents, e.g. changes in insolation, variations in origin of the air masses carrying moisture and North Atlantic events, acting both at regional and hemispheric scales. The origin of air masses was assessed using the Apennine equilibrium line altitude pattern, the presence of a quartz‐rich loess in the former glacial environment and the sedimentation rate of Sahara quartz in maar lakes. Temperature and humidity variations have been deduced from glacier expansions and retreats and lake oscillations. The data discussed in the paper show that variations in insolation have driven climatic changes in the Apennines for most of the considered time span, producing gradual changes that took place during periods lasting several thousand years. However, during some periods, insolation seems to have been of minor importance compared to variations in frequency and intensity of southern air currents, and to the influence of North Atlantic events. The data, as a whole, allow us to highlight the climatic evolution of the high Apennine mountains during the last 40k cal a BP.

Soilless systems as an alternative to wild strawberry (Fragaria vesca L.) traditional open-field cultivation in marginal lands of the Tuscan Apennines to enhance crop yield and producers’ income

ABSTRACTYield and quality of wild strawberry (Fragaria vesca L.) cultivars ‘Regina delle Valli’ and ‘Alpine’ cultivated in soil, as the traditional production system, and in soilless (both in open air and protected environments), as an innovative and sustainable production system, were investigated in a marginal and inner area of the Pistoiese Apennine Mountains during two production seasons. An earlier marketable production was obtained in soilless culture, but total marketable yield was higher from plants grown in a traditional open-field environment. Fruits obtained from the protected soilless system were larger, but developed some mildew, had some visual defects, and revealed a reduced skin chroma index, flesh firmness, and total soluble solids content compared to fruits harvested from plants grown under direct sunlight, while no significant differences were observed in total titratable acidity and pH between growing systems. ‘Alpine’ was more suited to soilless protected cultivation, with a much higher yield compared to ‘Regina delle Valli’. Physicochemical properties of berries were not affected by the cultivar, but fruit quality changed with plant age and seasonal crop cycle. ‘Alpine’ fruits gained a greater sensorial preference, both in traditional soil and soilless culture.

Hail frequency estimation across Europe based on a combination of overshooting top detections and the ERA-INTERIM reanalysis

This article presents a hail frequency estimation based on the detection of cold overshooting cloud tops (OTs) from the Meteosat Second Generation (MSG) operational weather satellites, in combination with a hail-specific filter derived from the ERA-INTERIM reanalysis. This filter has been designed based on the atmospheric properties in the vicinity of hail reports registered in the European Severe Weather Database (ESWD). These include Convective Available Potential Energy (CAPE), 0–6-km bulk wind shear and freezing level height, evaluated at the nearest time step and interpolated from the reanalysis grid to the location of the hail report. Regions highly exposed to hail events include Northern Italy, followed by South-Eastern Austria and Eastern Spain. Pronounced hail frequency is also found in large parts of Eastern Europe, around the Alps, the Czech Republic, Southern Germany, Southern and Eastern France, and in the Iberic and Apennine mountain ranges.

Lifting the curtain on the freshwater mussel diversity of the Italian Peninsula and Croatian Adriatic coast

Freshwater mussels of the order Unionida have been dramatically declining globally. Despite their ecological importance, conservation of these animals has been hindered by unresolved taxonomy and a lack of data on the distribution and status of populations, especially in southern Europe. Although the Italian Peninsula has been noted as a centre of endemism and one of the major refugia of the glacial ages for several taxa, few studies have been performed on the genetic diversity of Unionida. Most importantly, the taxonomic status of several freshwater mussel populations of the Italian Peninsula is still unresolved. Here we present the first comprehensive dataset for the Unionida of the region spanning Italy and the coastal Croatian region (west of the Dinaric Alps). In total, 191 specimens were collected (85 Anodonta, 64 Unio, 17 Microcondylaea bonellii and 25 Sinanodonta woodiana) from 34 sites across the Italian Peninsula and coastal Croatian river basins for molecular identification (COI, 16S and 28S). Genetic analyses were performed to understand major phylogenetic and phylogeographic patterns. Seven species were detected: three Anodonta species (A. anatina, A. cygnea and A. exulcerata), two Unio species (U. mancus and U. elongatulus), Microcondylaea bonellii, and the invasive Sinanodonta woodiana. The presence of three endemic species (A. exulcerata, U. elongatulus and M. bonellii) confirms the importance of the region as a centre of endemism for freshwater mussels. The Apennine Mountains act as an important biogeographic barrier.

Forest structure of a maple old-growth stand: a case study on the Apennines mountains (Southern Italy)

In Europe, very small forest areas can be considered to be old-growth, and they are mainly located in Eastern Europe. The typical structures of old growth forests infrequently occur in Mediterranean mountainous environments, since they have been affected by human activities for centuries. This study focused on a remote and almost pure Italian maple stand located in southern Italy, which has not been managed for long time due to its inaccessibility. The effects of natural evolution on the forest stand were evaluated through the analysis of the spatial and chronological structure and the regeneration patterns, then estimating the amounts and quality of deadwood occurrence. Across the whole stand, all the trees with DBH (diameter at breast height) larger than 50 cm (LLT, large living trees) were measured (DBH and height) and age was also determined through a dendrochronological approach. The diameters observed ranged between 50 and 145 cm with ages of 120 to 250 years. The Latham index calculated for trees within the sample plot highlighted a multilayered canopy with a dominant layer of large living trees (age > 120 years). The size-class distribution of stems had a reverse-J shape, and basal area was 52 m2 ha-1. Deadwood was exclusively constituted by standing dead trees and CWD and its volume was on average 31 m3 ha-1. Pure Italian maple forests are generally rare in Europe, and it was unexpected to find a forest stand characterized by a so complex structure with old growth attributes. The study of complex forest stand, even if small, could give precious information on the forest evolution, clarifying also diverse auto-ecological traits of tree species that usually are not common in our forests.

Biogeographical Complements forSeligeria carniolicaandS. irrigata(Bryophyta, Seligeriaceae)

Abstract New distributional data from France for two European endemic species, Seligeria carniolica and S. irrigata, are provided. The latter is new to France and this discovery significantly extends its current geographical range. The former is red-listed as an endangered endemic species in Europe and for a long time it was known only from some widely distributed isolated localities but nowadays it appears to be quite well represented in eastern France. The biogeography of these two species is discussed and S. carniolica, formerly considered as a boreal-montane suboceanic element, could be better designated as a Perialpine species with disjunct, highly isolated occurrences in northern Europe and in the Balkan Peninsula. Seligeria irrigata is primarily an Alpine species with some isolated localities in the Western Carpathians of Slovakia and in the Abruzzean Apennine Mountains in Italy.

Report on Italy Earthquake (24th August 2016)

On 24 August 2016, a magnitude of 6.2 earthquake hit the Apennines Mountains in central Italy, devastating the small towns of Amartrice, Accumoli and Pescare del Tronto. At least 293 lives were lost. This is the latest in a series of heavy earthquakes to hit Italy in recent years.

A new species of Amaurobius C.L. Koch, 1837 (Araneae: Amaurobiidae) from Apennine Mountains (Italy) with the description of the male of A. pavesii Pesarini, 1991

A new species of the genus Amaurobius C.L. Koch, 1837, Amaurobius pesarinii sp. n., from the Apennine Mountains (Italy) is described on the basis of both sexes. The male of A. pavesii Pesarini, 1991, previously unknown, is also described. Females of A. pavesii and both sexes of the similar A. scopolii Thorell, 1871 are re-described. Detailed description of morphological characters allow clear separation between these species and the closely related A. ferox (Walckenaer, 1820). Their phylogenetic relationships among the most common Italian Amaurobius species are discussed on the basis of molecular data (partial fragments of the genes COI, 16S and H3), together with their distribution across the Italian Peninsula. This is the first contribution to a multi-locus phylogenetic tree of European Amaurobius species. The synonymy of A. sciakyi Pesarini, 1991 with A. ruffoi Thaler, 1990 is proposed based on morphological characters.

Early Neolithic potters of the Italian Middle Adriatic region

This paper presents the preliminary results of the study of the Early Neolithic pottery production in the Marche region, Italy (VI mill. BC). The main goal of this research is to expand the knowledge of pottery manufacturing processes associated to the typical Central Adriatic Impressed Ware, at present poorly understood. All sites under analysis are located in the piedmont hills of the Apennine Mountains, except one which is on the coast. This study aims to highlight synchronic and diachronic variability in pottery technology, to identify common traits and to investigate the raw materials selection and exploitation strategies. The pottery assemblages are examined by means of an integrated approach which include techno-typological and archaeometric analyses. The environmental factors, the distribution of resources, the technology solutions taken by these early Neolithic communities are considered.

Importance of Common Wall Lizards in the Transmission Dynamics of Tick-Borne Pathogens in the Northern Apennine Mountains, Italy.

During the investigations on ticks and tick-borne pathogens (TBP) range expansion in the Northern Apennines, we captured 107 Podarcis muralis lizards. Sixty-eight animals were infested by immature Ixodes ricinus, Haemaphysalis sulcata and H. punctata. Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. was detected in 3.7% of I. ricinus larvae and 8.0% of nymphs. Together with the species-specific B. lusitaniae, we identified B. garinii, B. afzelii and B. valaisiana. Rickettsia spp. (18.1% larvae, 12.0% nymphs), namely R. monacensis, R. helvetica and R. hoogstraalii, were also found in I. ricinus. R. hoogstraalii was detected in H. sulcata nymphs as well, while the two H. punctata did not harbour any bacteria. One out of 16 lizard tail tissues was positive to R. helvetica. Our results support the hypothesis that lizards are involved in the epidemiological cycles of TBP. The heterogeneity of B. burgdorferi genospecies mirrors previous findings in questing ticks in the area, and their finding in attached I. ricinus larvae suggests that lizards may contribute to the maintenance of different genospecies. The rickettsiae are new findings in the study area, and R. helvetica infection in a tail tissue indicates a systemic infection. R. hoogstraalii is reported for the first time in I. ricinus ticks. Lizards seem to favour the bacterial exchange among different tick species, with possible public health consequences.

Faulty Assumptions Impair Earthquake Hazard Assessment in Italy

Along faults in the Central Apennine Mountains, weather and landslides may cause rock exposure that is mistakenly attributed to earthquakes.

Altitude affects the quality of the water-extractable organic matter (WEOM) from rhizosphere and bulk soil in European beech forests

Water-extractable organic matter (WEOM) is the most dynamic and bioavailable fraction of the soil organic matter pool. Although the litter floor is considered the main source of WEOM, roots also release a great amount of labile organic compounds through rhizodeposition processes. This makes the rhizosphere, the small soil volume in proximity to the roots, a soil compartment relatively enriched in WEOM. Since both the rhizosphere and the labile organic C pool are highly sensitive to the environmental conditions we evaluated the characteristics of WEOM from rhizosphere and bulk soil collected from the A horizons of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forest soils of Apennines mountains (central Italy) at two altitudes (800 and 1000m), using elevation as a proxy for temperature change. Specifically, we tested if i) the rhizosphere contains higher amounts of WEOM with a greater diversity of compounds with respect to the bulk soil, and ii) this effect is more pronounced at higher altitude. At both 800m and 1000m above sea level, the main distinction between WEOM from rhizosphere and bulk soil was the larger amounts of sugars in the soil close to the roots. Further, our results indicated an influence of altitude on rhizospheric processes as suggested by the larger concentrations of organic C and soluble phenols, and richness of tannins in the rhizosphere WEOM than in the bulk soil at 1000m. We attributed this influence to environmental constraints which enhanced the release of labile organics and secondary metabolites by rhizodeposition and humification processes in the rhizosphere. As a whole, our data draw a picture where the roots are able to affect the characteristics of WEOM and environmental constraints enhance the differentiation between rhizosphere and bulk soil. This view confirms the influence of the rhizosphere on the soil C cycle, and the importance of the rhizospheric processes when environmental conditions become harsher.