Anti-inflammatory Activity Of Essential Oils Research Articles

Chemical Composition of the Essential Oil and the Solvent Extracts of Curcuma Pseudomontana Rhizomes and in Vitro Evaluation of their Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities

The phytoconstituents of the essential oil isolated by hydrodistillation and solvent extracts (PE, BZ, DCM, EtOAc and EtOH) of mature rhizomes of turmeric (Curcuma pseudomontana) were analyzed by GC–MS. The major constituents identified in the oil and the extracts were Benzofuran (6.93%), γ-Curcumene (11.18%), β-Elemenone (22.14%), Germacrone (15.15%), Phenol, 2-Methyl-5-(1,2,2-trimethylcyclopentyl)- (29.58%), Germacrene (8.78%), Italicene (15.30%), Xanthorrhizol (56.52%), Pseudocumenol (24.56%) and Epicurzerenolne (4.95%). Analyzing the anti-inflammatory activity of essential oils (EO), and solvent extracts using HRBC stabilization and antioxidant activity. The results of GC MS analysis showed that while Pseudocumenol the major componenets in the essential oil. Xanthorrhizol is the major component in BZ, DCM and EtOH extracts of the matured rhizomes of C. psedomonata. The results of EO and the solvent extracts from Curcuma possessed good anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities and hence can be used in natural preservative ingredients in food and/ or pharmaceutical industries.

In Vitro Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Essential Oil and β-Bisabolol Derived from Cotton Gin Trash.

Natural α-bisabolol has been widely used in cosmetics and is sourced mainly from the stems of Candeia trees that have become endangered due to over exploitation. The in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of cotton gin trash (CGT) essential oil and the major terpenoid (β-bisabolol) purified from the oil were investigated against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages as well as the 3t3 and HS27 fibroblast cell lines. Nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and interleukin 8 (IL-8) were measured using Greiss reagent, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and cytokine bead array (CBA)-flow cytometry. Non-toxic concentrations of CGT oil and β-bisabolol (1.6–50.0 µg/mL) significantly inhibited the production of the inflammatory mediators in a dose-dependent manner. Maximal inhibition by β-bisabolol was 55.5% for NO, 62.3% for PGE2, and 45.3% for TNF-α production in RAW cells. β-Bisabolol induced a level of inhibition similar to an equal concentration of α-bisabolol (50.0 µg/mL), a known anti-inflammatory agent. These results suggest β-bisabolol exerts similar in vitro effects to known topical anti-inflammatory agents and could therefore be exploited for cosmetic and therapeutic uses. This is the first study to report the in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of β-bisabolol in CGT essential oil.

Chemical composition and antioxidant, anti-tyrosinase and anti-inflammatory activities of essential oil from Boesenbergia longiflora (Wall.) Kuntze

Chemical composition and antioxidant, anti-tyrosinase and anti-inflammatory activities of essential oil from Boesenbergia longiflora (Wall.) Kuntze

Chemical Composition, Antibacterial, Enzyme-Inhibitory, and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Essential Oil from Hedychium puerense Rhizome

Hedychium puerense, a perennial rhizomatous herb, is used as an ornamental, medicinal, and edible plant in Yunnan Province, China. Essential oils from Hedychium plants are widely used in perfumes and traditional medicine, but there are no studies on the constituents and bioactivities of H. puerense essential oil (EO). Therefore, this study was designed to explore the chemical composition, antibacterial, enzyme-inhibitory, and anti-inflammatory activities of H. puerense rhizome EO. The gas chromatography with flame ionization or mass selective detection (GC-FID/MS) results indicated that H. puerense EO was mainly composed of linalool (26.5%), β-pinene (18.6%), γ-terpinene (12.1%), terpinen-4-ol (7.7%), α-pinene (5.8%), sabinene (4.9%), E-nerolidol (4.1%), and p-cymene (3.6%). For biological activities, H. puerense EO displayed broad-spectrum antibacterial properties against Enterococcus faecalis, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli with diameter of inhibition zone (DIZ) values ranging from 7.44 to 10.30 mm, a minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 3.13–6.25 mg/m), and a minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) of 3.13–12.50 mg/mL. Moreover, the EO significantly inhibited acetylcholinesterase (AChE) (IC50 = 0.94 ± 0.02 mg/mL) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) (IC50 = 1.32 ± 0.06 mg/mL) activities, and exhibited a moderate inhibitory effect on α-glucosidase (IC50 = 5.42 ± 0.32 mg/mL) and tyrosinase (IC50 = 3.23 ± 0.21 mg/mL). Furthermore, the EO significantly suppressed the secretion of the pro-inflammatory mediator, nitric oxide (NO) (99.23 ± 0.26%), cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) (97.14 ± 0.11%), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) (82.42 ± 0.16%) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells at 250 μg/mL without cytotoxicity. Hence, H. puerense EO can be considered a bioactive, natural product that has great potential for utilization in the fields of food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutics.

Anti-inflammatory effect of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.) essential oil prepared during different plant phenophases on THP-1 macrophages

BackgroundPseudomonas aeruginosa is the most common Gram-negative bacterium associated with nosocomial respiratory infections. Lavender essential oil is mainly used in aromatherapy, but it has several pharmacological and therapeutic properties. Furthermore, it possesses antifungal and antibacterial activities. The anti-inflammatory activity of essential oils may depend on the composition and the ratio of the compounds. The constitution of the essential oils extracted from the different stages of flowering period varies, which makes it plausible that the collection time of the flowers influences the anti-inflammatory effects. Different types of essential oils reduce inflammation acting similarly by modulating the activity and action of the NFκB signalling pathway, which is the major regulator of the transcription of pro-inflammatory cytokines.MethodsLavender essential oils were distilled from lavender plant cultivated in Hungary and the flowers were harvested at the beginning and at the end of flowering period. The experiments were carried out on THP-1 human monocyte/macrophage cell line as in vitro cell culture model for monitoring the effects of lavender essential oils and the main compound linalool on P. aeruginosa LPS stimulated inflammation. The mRNA and protein levels of four pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-6, IL-1β, IL-8 and TNFα were determined by Real Time PCR and ELISA measurements. The effects of essential oils were compared to the response to two NFκB inhibitors, luteolin and ACHP.ResultsLinalool and lavender essential oil extracted from plants at the beginning of flowering period were successful in decreasing pro-inflammatory cytokine production following LPS pretreatment. In case of IL-8 and IL-1β lavender oil showed stronger effect compared to linalool and both of them acted similarly to NFκB inhibitors. Pretreatments with linalool and lavender essential oil/beginning of flowering period prevented pro-inflammatory cytokine production compared to LPS treatment alone. Although lavender essential oil/end of flowering period decreased IL-6, IL-1β and IL-8 mRNA expression in case of LPS pretreatment, it was not capable to reduce cytokine secretion.ConclusionBased on our results it has been proven that lavender essential oil extracted at the beginning of flowering period is a potent inhibitor of the synthesis of four pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-8, IL-β and TNFα of THP-1 cells. This supports the relevance of the collection of the lavender flowers from early blooming period for essential oil production and for the utilization as an anti-inflammatory treatment.

Chemical Composition and Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory and Antimicrobial Activities of the Essential Oil and its Major Component (Carlina oxide) of Carlina hispanica Roots from Western Algeria

The purpose of this work was to study the chemical composition and in vitro antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities of essential oil and carlina oxide isolated to Carlina hispanica roots. The in vitro combinatory effect of carlina oxide with BHT, EDTA and diclofenac to reduce their minimum effective dose and minimize their side effects was also tested. The essential oil obtained from the roots has been studied using GC and GC/MS. Antioxidant activity was assessed using radical scavenging activity (DPPH), the β-carotene bleaching test using the BHT as a positive control, and the ferrous Iron chelating using EDTA as a positive control. The activity of anti-inflammatory was assessed by the protein denaturation method using the diclofenac as a positive control. The antimicrobial activity was evaluated against six microbial strains using the Disc Diffusion Assay and the microplate method to determine the MIC. The essential oil of C. hispanica was represented mainly by an acetylenic compound carlina oxide (81.1 %) which was isolated and identified by spectroscopic 1H NMR, 13C NMR and IR methods. The results of the biological activities showed that both essential oil and carlina oxide had an interesting antioxidant and anti-inflammatory power. Likewise, the combinations of positive controls with carlina oxide showed better activities with a substantial reduction in inhibitory concentrations and dose of the antioxidants and anti-inflammatories synthetics. Further studies are needed to provide these positive control combinations with carlina oxide in the pharmaceutical industry. Keyworlds: Carlina hispanica, essential oil, carlina oxide, biological activities.

In vitro Methods to Study Antioxidant and Some Biological Activities of Essential Oils: a Review

As essential oils (EOs) represent a new source of efficient and safe agents for health nowadays, the present review brings together the in vitro methods widely used to evaluate the antioxidant and some biological activities especially, antidiabetic, anticancer, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities of EOs, in order to valorize these EOs and to highlight their potential benefits. Moreover, each method cited is along with its aim, principle, advantages and limitations, experimental protocols, and notes. Hence, this review will help researchers working on EOs, to save time while accessing this summary document on the one hand, and on the other hand, it will contribute to scientific approval of in vitro antioxidant and biological effects of EOs for future useful purposes.

Chemical Composition, Antioxidant, and Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Essential Oil from Omija (Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill.) Produced by Supercritical Fluid Extraction Using CO2.

Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill., which is known as omija in South Korea, is mainly cultivated in East Asia. The present study aimed to investigate the chemical composition of essential oil from the omija (OMEO) fruit obtained by supercritical fluid extraction using CO2 and to confirm the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity of OMEO using HaCaT human keratinocyte and RAW 264.7 murine macrophages. As a result of the chemical composition analysis of OMEO using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, a total of 41 compounds were identified. The detailed analysis results are sesquiterpenoids (16), monoterpenoids (14), ketones (4), alcohols (3), aldehydes (2), acids (1), and aromatic hydrocarbons (1). OMEO significantly reduced the increased ROS levels in HaCaT keratinocytes induced by UV-B irradiation (p < 0.05). It was confirmed that 5 compounds (α-pinene, camphene, β-myrcene, 2-nonanone, and nerolidol) present in OMEO exhibited inhibitory activity on ROS production. Furthermore, OMEO showed excellent anti-inflammatory activity in RAW 264.7 macrophages induced by lipopolysaccharide. OMEO effectively inhibited NO production (p < 0.05) by suppressing the expression of the iNOS protein. Finally, OMEO was investigated for exhibition of anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting the activation of NF-κB pathway. Taken together, OMEO could be used as a functional food ingredient with excellent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity.

Chemical Profiling, Toxicity and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Essential Oils from Three Grapefruit Cultivars from KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa.

The medicinal potential and volatile composition of different parts of three cultivars of grapefruit (Citrus paradisi) were evaluated for their toxicity and anti-inflammatory activities. Fresh leaf and fruit peel were separately isolated by hydrodistillation for 4 h. The essential oils were subjected to GC/GC-MS analysis for chemical profile. Toxicity of the essential oils in mice were evaluated using Lorke’s method, while an anti-inflammatory assay was performed in a rat model using egg albumin-induced oedema. The oils obtained were light yellow in colour, and odour varied from strong citrus smell to mild. Percentage yield of fresh peel oil (0.34–0.57%) was greater than the fresh leaf oil yield (0.21–0.34%). D-limonene (86.70–89.90%) was the major compound identified in the leaf oil, while β-phellandrene (90.00–91.01%) dominated the peel oil. At a dosage level of 5000 mg/kg, none of the oils showed mortality in mice. An anti-inflammatory bioassay revealed that all the oils caused a significant (p < 0.05–0.01) reduction in oedema size when compared to the negative control group throughout the 5 h post induction assessment period. The study reveals that the oils are non-toxic and demonstrate significant anti-inflammatory activity. Our findings suggest that the leaf and peel oils obtained from waste parts of grapefruit plants can be useful as flavouring agents, as well as anti-inflammatory agents.

Chemical Composition, Antibacterial, and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Essential Oils from Flower, Leaf, and Stem of Rhynchanthus beesianus.

Rhynchanthus beesianus is a medicinal, ornamental, and edible plant, and its essential oil has been used as an aromatic stomachic in China. In this study, the chemical constituents, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory properties of flower essential oil (F-EO), leaf essential oil (L-EO), and stem essential oil (S-EO) of R. beesianus were investigated for the first time. According to the GC-FID/MS assay, the F-EO was mainly composed of bornyl formate (21.7%), 1,8-cineole (21.6%), borneol (9.7%), methyleugenol (7.7%), β-myrcene (5.4%), limonene (4.7%), camphene (4.5%), linalool (3.4%), and α-pinene (3.1%). The predominant components of L-EO were bornyl formate (33.9%), borneol (13.2%), 1,8-cineole (12.1%), methyleugenol (8.0%), camphene (7.8%), bornyl acetate (6.2%), and α-pinene (4.3%). The main components of S-EO were borneol (22.5%), 1,8-cineole (21.3%), methyleugenol (14.6%), bornyl formate (11.6%), and bornyl acetate (3.9%). For the bioactivities, the F-EO, L-EO, and S-EO exhibited significant antibacterial property against Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli with the inhibition zones (7.28–9.69 mm), MIC (3.13–12.50 mg/mL), and MBC (6.25–12.50 mg/mL). Besides, the F-EO, L-EO, and S-EO significantly inhibited the production of proinflammatory mediator nitric oxide (NO) (93.15–94.72%) and cytokines interleukin-6 (IL-6) (23.99–77.81%) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) (17.69–24.93%) in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells at the dose of 128 μg/mL in the absence of cytotoxicity. Hence, the essential oils of R. beesianus flower, leaf, and stem could be used as natural antibacterial and anti-inflammatory agents with a high application potential in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic fields.

Anti-inflammatory Activity of Essential Oil from Leaves of Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC through Inhibiting TLR4/NF-kB Signaling Pathways and NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation in LPS-induced RAW264.7 Macrophage Cells

The essential oil (EO) separated from leaves of Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC is extensively applied as conventional medicine by the Miao, Zhuang, and Li nationalities in China to drive skin healing of trauma or burn. Recently, a lot of evidence has proved that EO possesses anti-inflammatory activity. Nevertheless, the underlying molecular mechanisms are still unknown. This research aims to examine the underlying mechanisms of EO in the wound healing areas of skin through evaluating the anti-inflammatory activity, especially two major concerns, the variations of relative proteins in TLR4-NF-κB signaling pathway and NLRP3 inflammasome in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. A total of 39 compounds from EO were determined and interpreted by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). It was observed that the main compounds of EO are (-)-borneol (25.382 %), trans-caryophyllene (24.439 %), camphor (8.991 %), caryophyllene oxide (5.843 %), xanthoxylin (3.968 %), and alloaromadendrene (3.321 %). The anti-inflammation activity and underlying mechanisms are assessed by ELISA, qRT-PCR, and Western blotting in Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. The outcomes reveal that EO can significantly reduce the LPS-induced pro-inflammatory elements TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and inflammatory mediator COX-2 in RAW264.7 cells (P<0.01). Additionally, EO can significantly inhibit the expression of proteins in the NF-κB signaling pathway, such as CD14, TLR4, MyD88, TAK-1, p-IκBα, and NLRP3 inflammasome (P<0.05, P<0.01). These outcomes show anti-inflammatory roles of EO in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells by decreasing activity of TLR4-NF-κB signaling pathway and inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation, suggesting that EO can be adopted as a hopeful natural commodity preventing and treating inflammatory diseases.

Phytochemical composition, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities of essential oil of Acmella uliginosa (Sw.) Cass. grown in North India Terai region of Uttarakhand

The plant Acmella uliginosa (Sw.) Cass. belonging to family Asteraceae was subjected to hydro distillation for essential oil extraction and was chemically analyzed by GC/MS for its phytochemical composition. Thirty-five compounds were identified comprising 88.1% of total essential oil composition. Limonene (12.2%) along with sesquisabinene isomer (7.3%) and caryophyllene oxide (5.9%) were the prominent compounds of the essential oil. In-vitro antioxidant activity of essential oil was investigated by DPPH free radical scavenging activity and metal chelating activity having IC50 value of 326.77 ± 5.34 μL and 14.853 ± 0.106 μL respectively whereas reducing power activity having RP50 value of 14.011 ± 0.0446 μL. The essential oil exhibited potent anti-inflammatory activity with IB50 value of 5.629 ± 0.0311 μL compared to standard Diclofenac sodium salt having IB50 value of 23.693 ± 0.306 μg/mL. The essential oil displayed exceedingly marked anti-inflammatory as well as antioxidant activities as compared to standard marketed drugs.

Diversity of oil plant resourcesin the Central Highlands region and antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory activities of essential oils of Magnolia citrataNoot. &amp; Chalermglinand Hedyosmum orientaleMerr. &amp; Chun

The Central Highlands (Tay Nguyen) possesses suitable resources for the cultivation of valuable industrial plants. The region also enjoys favourable conditions, which are highland topography, sub-tropical climate, and abundant flora, for the flourishment of essential oil resources. The authors conducted surveys and assessments in five provinces: Lam Dong, Kon Tum, Gia Lai, Dak Lak, and Dak Nong. As a result, there were 248 plants with sufficient essential oil contents were identified. Besides, the authors also conducted research on the contents, chemical compositions, bioactivities, and recognised several species with considerable potentials for pharmaceutical use, due to their high concentration and quality of oils such as some in the genera Gaultheria, Magnolia, etc..

Anti-nociceptive Property, Anti-inflammatory Activity and Constituents of Essential Oils from the Leaves and Stem Bark of Turnera diffusa Wild (Passifloraceae) Growing in Nigeria

Because of the need to source biologically active products from plants, this paper reports the chemical compounds, anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of essential oils hydrodistilled from the leaves and stem bark of Turnera diffusa Wild (Passifloraceae). The essential oils were separately isolated using hydrodistillation of the pulverized (360 g of leaf and 316 g of stem bark) materials in an all-glass Clevenger- type apparatus and characterized by GC-FID and GC-MS. The hot plate method was used to determine the anti- nociceptive property while the anti-inflammatory activity was established using the Carrageenan induced paw edema model. The yields of the essential oils were 0.19% (v/w, yellow, leaf) and 0.28% (v/w, colorless, stem bark), calculated on a dry weight basis. The leaf oil consists mainly of β-caryophyllene (43.7%) and germacrene B (21.3%) while geranial (50.7%) and neral (33.6%) were the main constituents of the stem bark oil. In our study, we found that the essential oils of T. diffusa (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg) exhibited an anti-nociceptive effect at all observation periods at a significance of p<0.001 for both the leaves and stem bark. The essential oil from the stem bark showed high anti-inflammatory activity (p<0.001) at the 1st to the 4th h for all the essential oil doses while the leaves of T. diffusa inhibited inflammation up to the 3rd h post-treatment, but were non-significant at the 4th h for all doses. The results indicate the potential of the essential oils in pain-relieving activities.

Antioxidant, Antimicrobial and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Essential Oil Derived from the Wild Rhizome of Atractylodes macrocephala.

The present study investigated the chemical composition, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities of essential oil (EO) derived from the wild rhizomes of Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz. (AMA) growing in Qimen County (eastern China). GC/MS analysis identified fifteen compounds, representing 92.55 % of AMA EO. The major compounds were atractylone (39.22 %), β-eudesmol (27.70 %), thymol (5.74 %), hinesol (5.50 %), and 11-isopropylidenetricyclo[4.3.1.1(2,5)]undec-3-en-10-one (4.71 %). Ferricyanide reducing, 1,1-diphenyl-2-picyrlhydrazyl (DPPH) and 3-ethyl-benzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) scavenging assays revealed that AMA EO exhibited strong antioxidant capacities. Additionally, AMA EO showed inhibitory effects on growth of Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enterica, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus subtilis, with the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 mg/mL. Treatments with AMA EO also significantly inhibited nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2 ) production in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW264.7 cells, indicating anti-inflammatory activity of AMA EO. Furthermore, treatments with AMA EO decreased the transcriptional levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), which might be the molecular mechanisms underlying its anti-inflammatory effects. Overall, these results provide a theoretical basis for further study and application of AMA EO in food and medicine products.

Chemical Composition and In vivo Anti-inflammatory Activity of Essential Oils from Citrus sinensis (L.) osbeck Growing in South Africa

The purpose of this study is to determine the chemical profile of the essential oils extracted from South African grown Citrus sinensis (L.) osbeck leaf and peels (fresh and dried) using gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and evaluate the essential oils anti-inflammatory potential. The analysis gave forty and fifty-four compounds accounting for 91.5 % and 99.6 % respectively identified in fresh and dried leaf essential oils. The major compounds in fresh leaf essential oil were sabinene (20.4 %) and terpinen-4-ol (13.2 %) while β-elemene (16.3 %) and sabinene (10.7 %) were identified in dried leaf essential oil. In fresh and dried peel oils, twenty-four and twenty-five compounds accounting for 99.3 % and 99.4 % respectively were identified whereby limonene (80.5-73.6 %) was the most prevalent compound. Citrus sinensis dried leaf and peel bioactive essential oils compounds significantly (p< 0.01) suppressed oedema in rats hind paw mostly at 200 mg/kg dose level indicating good anti-inflammatory activity. The abundance of limonene in Peels essential oil and β-elemene and sabinene in leaf essential oil played a significant role in anti- inflammatory properties of Citrus sinensis. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive chemical profile report on South African grown C. sinensis despite being a major citrus producing country.

Eucalyptus essential oils inhibit the lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory response in RAW264.7 macrophages through reducing MAPK and NF-\u03baB pathways

BackgroundEucalyptus essential oils have been used in traditional medicine for centuries. It was reported that Eucalyptus leaves possess antioxidant and antimicrobial effects. Here, we investigated the anti-inflammatory activity of the essential oils extracted from the leaves of four different Eucalyptus species in RAW264.7 macrophages.MethodsLipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW264.7 macrophages were used to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity of the leaf essential oils of Eucalyptus. The cell survival was quantified by an Alamar Blue assay. Nitric oxide (NO) production was assessed by Griess reaction. TNF-α and IL-6 production were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) transcriptional activity was measured by NF-κB reporter assay. Intracellular protein expression levels were determined by Western blot. The expression levels of inducible NO synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), protein kinase C (PKC) and NF-κB pathway were measured by western blot in LPS-activated RAW 264.7 macrophage.ResultsThe essential oils extracted from Eucalyptus citriodora leaf exert the best NO inhibitory activity in LPS-activated RAW264.7 macrophages. The essential oils were fractionated into fractions A-H, and fraction F has been demonstrated to inhibit the expression levels of TNF-α, IL-6, NO, iNOS and COX-2 in LPS-activated RAW264.7 macrophages. Mechanistic analysis revealed that fraction F reduced the phosphorylation levels of ERK1/2, p38, PKC-α, PKC-ε and PKC-δ, and inhibited the NF-κB transcriptional activity. The chemical composition of Fraction F was determined by GC-MS.ConclusionsThe discoveries made herein could help develop innovative nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs with minimal side effects and strong efficacy. Clinical trials on these Eucalyptus leaf essential oils will help customize and optimize their therapeutic administration.

Six herbs essential oils suppressing inflammatory responses via inhibiting COX-2/TNF-α/IL-6/NF-κB activation

Frankincense, Myrrh, Radix aucklandiae, Matricaria chamomilla, Jasminum sambac and Syzygium aromaticum have been widely used as Chinese herbs. The composition and anti-inflammatory activity of essential oils from Frankincense, Myrrh, R. aucklandiae, M. chamomilla, J. sambac and S. aromaticum are analyzed in this study. The dominant compositions of Frankincense essential oils are octyl acetate (39.62%), octane-1-ol (10.23%) and eucalyptol (7.42%). The major components of Myrrh essential oils are α-elemene (13.17%), β-elemene (7.92%), germacrene D (6.85%) and α-copaene (6.42%). The main compositions of R. aucklandiae essential oils are 1,4,8-cyclododecatriene (10.88%), γ-costol (10.4%), γ-gurjunenepoxide-(2) (8.18%) and caryophyllene oxide (5.67%). The major compositions of M. chamomilla oils are (E)-tonghaosu (30.83%), α-bisabolone oxide A (18.89%), α-bisabolone oxide B (10.73%) and chamazulene (6.63%). The major compounds of J. sambac and S. aromaticum essential oils are eugenol with a percentage of 52.47% and 96.71%, respectively. In TPA-induced ear edema assay, most of essential oils reveal decent anti-inflammatory activity, especially that Myrrh, R. aucklandiae and M. chamomilla essential oils are even better than commercial anti-inflammatory medicine (ibuprofen), via markedly down-regulating the expression of inflammatory cytokines, like cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) in vivo. Therefore, it is reasonably speculated that these natural essential oils will be potential anti-inflammatory drug for inflammation with little side effects.

Chemical composition and anti-inflammatory activity of essential oil and ethanolic extract of Campomanesia phaea (O. Berg.) Landrum leaves

Ethnopharmacological relevanceCampomanesia species are used in folk medicine for anti-inflammatory, -ulcerogenic, -diabetic, -obesity, and many other purposes. Aim of the studyThis study aimed to investigate the phytochemical profile and pharmacotherapeutic potential of the essential oil (EO) and ethanolic extract (EXT) of the leaves of Campomanesia phaea in relation to antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects using chemical methods and in vitro bioassays in cell culture. Materials and methodsGas and liquid chromatography techniques coupled to mass spectrometry were used to identify the main secondary metabolites. The antioxidant activity was determined by the chemical methods of radical sequestration of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′-Azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), and by ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP); in addition to the protective effect against cellular oxidative damage caused by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in macrophage culture. The anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activity was evaluated for the influence on the production of nitric oxide and superoxide anion (O2•-), and by the quantification of proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor (TNF alpha) and interleukin 6 (IL- 6) through Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay (ELISA) technique and inhibition of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) through chemiluminescence. ResultsA total of 41 compounds were identified in the essential oil (EO), being (E)-caryophyllene (14%) and caryophyllene oxide (6.9%) the major compounds. In the ethanolic extract (EXT), three flavonoids from the flavanones group were identified: alpinetin O-dideoxy-hexoside, 5,7-dimethoxyflavanone and alpinetin. The EO and EXT inhibited the production of O2•- (99.0% and 52.9%) at a concentration of 100 μg/mL, intracellular NO•- (50.0% and 51.9%) and proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 (41.0% and 82.9%) and TNF-α (74.7% and 87.9%) at a concentration of 50 μg/mL, respectively. In addition, inhibition of nuclear factor kappa B (EO 36.2% and EXT 40.9%) was observed at 20 μg/mL. ConclusionsTaken together, the results indicated that EO and EXT possess potent anti-inflammatory activities and it may hold therapeutic promise in the management of acute and chronic inflammatory conditions.

Topical Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Essential Oils of Alpinia calcarata Rosc., Its Main Constituents, and Possible Mechanism of Action.

This study aimed at investigating the anti-inflammatory potential of essential oil from rhizome and leaf of Alpinia calcarata Rosc. (ACEO) with the focus of its topical anti-inflammatory activity along with its dominant compounds 1,8-cineole and α-terpineol using mouse ear edema model. ACEOs were analyzed by GC-MS. The anti-inflammatory activity was determined by studying the inhibition of overproduction of proinflammatory mediators—nitric oxide, reactive oxygen species, prostaglandins, cyclooxygenases, and cytokines induced by lipopolysaccharides in murine macrophages. Topical anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activity was studied by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) induced skin inflammation and formalin-induced pain model in mice, respectively. Rhizome oil has 1,8-cineole (31.08%), α-terpineol (10.31%), and fenchyl acetate (10.73%) as major compounds whereas the ACEO from leaves has 1,8-cineole (38.45%), a-terpineol (11.62%), and camphor (10%). ACEOs reduced the production of inflammatory mediators in vitro in a concentration-dependent manner. Further, ACEO and its major compounds reduced ear thickness, weight, myeloperoxidase, and cytokines significantly (p < 0.01) in mouse ear. Dose-dependent reduction in flinching and licking in both the phases of pain sensation concludes the topical analgesic effect. Our findings suggest the potency of topical use of ACEOs for inflammatory disease conditions.