Antifouling Performance Research Articles

High-resolution 3D printing technologies are enabling a new generation of microstructured materials for applications where biocompatibility is critical. However, most conventional 3D-printable resins yield materials that exhibit trade-offs between antifouling properties and mechanical robustness, limiting their applicability in living systems. In nature, zwitterionic surface groups form tightly bound hydration layers that act as effective barriers against protein and cell attachment. Inspired by this strategy, a zwitterionic acrylamide-based photoresist-carboxybetaine di-methacrylamide (CBDA)-is developed for projection-based vat photopolymerization, enabling the fabrication of complex microarchitectures with exceptional antifouling properties. The bifunctional monomer allows the formation of dense, cross-linked networks that resist swelling while maintaining a high density of zwitterionic groups. Printed structures exhibit strong resistance to protein and cell adhesion, as confirmed by porcine blood assays, alongside robust mechanical performance. As a demonstration, a tubular structure featuring a negative Poisson's ratio lattice is printed to showcase structural fidelity and versatility. This resin formulation offers a broadly applicable strategy for fabricating microscale devices and surfaces where antifouling performance and structural integrity are both essential-spanning biomedical interfaces, soft robotics, and beyond.

Regulating the morphological structure of cellulose acetate ultrafiltration membrane by adjusting the ratio of N, N-dimethylacetamide: N-methyl pyrrolidone in co-solvent to enhance separation and anti-fouling performance

Highly efficient photocatalytic uranium extraction from seawater via oxidation pathway: Performance and mechanism.

The overlooked multidimensional roles of filtration pressure in improving ozonation: A study in a O3/pressurized cell-side feeding PVDF UF/BAC system.

Antifouling peptides engineered with amino-terminal copper-nickel-binding motifs for low-fouling and antibacterial electrochemical detection of HER2 in complex biofluids.

Super-hydrophilic/super-hydrophobic composite coating on peripherally inserted central venous catheters for enhanced antifouling, antithrombotic, and antibacterial performance

Controlled release of newly synthesized NH2-ZIF-8@BITEP from epoxy resin-based coating for enhanced antifouling and anti-corrosion performance

Complete filling of Cu2O into high-aspect-ratio TiO2 nanotube arrays with strong adhesion on the titanium for long-lasting anti-fouling performance

Enhanced anti-wetting and anti-fouling performance of superhydrophobic supported liquid membrane contactors for selective short-chain fatty acid recovery from food waste leachate

Durable hybrid photocatalytic/microfiltration titania nanoflowers-calcium bentonite hollow fiber membrane with exceptional antifouling performance for real refinery-produced water treatment

The growing demand for eco-friendly materials in architecture, interior design, and product manufacturing has sparked interest in algae as a renewable source of pigments and functional additives for paints and coatings. Algae-based paints are gaining attention as sustainable alternatives to conventional synthetic paints due to their renewable sourcing, low environmental impact, and natural antimicrobial properties. This review synthesizes research on the use of algae-derived pigments and biomass in paints, examining their extraction ,methods, antimicrobial and antifouling efficacy, thermal stability, practical applications, formulation, performance, sustainability, and commercialization potential. Findings highlight algae’s versatility in providing natural hues, bioactive functionalities, and environmental benefits compared to synthetic alternatives. Limitations such as biodeterioration and pigment stability are also discussed. Adaptation of algae-based paints for interior and industrial uses shows considerable promise for eco-friendly coatings. However, challenges such as pigment stability, scalability, and cost competitiveness remain. The paper concludes with research gaps and future directions for the development of algaebased paints.

Diverse microorganisms routinely organize into biofilms, posing a persistent threat to ecological contamination, industrial dysfunction, and public health. Engineered antibacterial nanomaterials, achieving several orders of magnitude reduction in bacterial viability, have emerged as broad-spectrum agents that suppress bacterial proliferation and biofilm formation while presenting a lower risk of resistance development. Embedding nanomaterials or creating nanostructures within surface coatings constitutes an effective, economical, and eco-friendly strategy for long-term biofouling mitigation in complex biological environments. Rational interfacial engineering enables mechanically robust and durable antifouling coatings on diverse substrates, unlocking applications across biomedical, environmental, and energy sectors. This review summarizes a comprehensive understanding of designing nanomaterial-integrated antifouling coatings (NACs) that correlates interfacial engineering with nano-microbe interactions. First, an overview of primary antibacterial nanomaterials employed in functional coatings, detailing fundamental properties, and antifouling mechanisms, is provided. Then, the principles of interfacial engineering for NACs are explored, emphasizing the structure-activity relationships that enhance antifouling activity, mechanical integrity, and durability. Emerging trends in the deployment of NACs for marine antifouling, antimicrobial corrosion protection, and biomedical use are subsequently highlighted. Finally, fundamental and practical challenges facing targeted NAC architectures are discussed, and perspectives for future research that bridge the gap between nanomaterial characteristics and macroscopic antifouling performance are offered.

Optimizing the antifouling performance of mixed patterned membranes: a computational study for water treatment

Silver-doped sepiolite intercalated graphene hybrid incorporated polyether sulfone composite membranes for enhanced water flux and biofouling resistance.

Polymer particles are widely used in biomedical applications as a latex, in which antifouling properties are essential for minimizing nonspecific biomolecular adsorption. In this study, polymer particles grafted with zwitterionic polymer brushes at controlled densities were prepared to suppress nonspecific adsorption. Particles bearing atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) initiators were synthesized via emulsifier-free emulsion polymerization via a mixture of ATRP inimer and dummy inimer. The surface-accessible ATRP initiator density, quantified by fluorescence labeling, was tunable by varying the inimer feed ratio. Poly(2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl 2-(trimethylammonio)ethyl phosphate) (PMPC) brushes were grown from the particle surfaces and free ATRP initiator in solution via surface-initiated activator generated by electron transfer ATRP (SI-AGET ATRP) in a methanol/water mixture using tris[2-(N,N-dimethylamino)ethyl]amine as a ligand. The free polymer showed a linear increase in the number-average molecular weight with conversion and relatively low dispersity (Mw/Mn = 1.25-1.30), confirming well-controlled polymerization. The grafting density of the resulting brushes on the particles was correlated with the surface-accessible ATRP initiator density. The antifouling performance, evaluated by quantifying bovine serum albumin adsorption, indicated that the particles coated with high-density PMPC brushes (0.11 chains/nm2) exhibited significantly reduced nonspecific adsorption compared with those coated with lower-density brushes. Both controlled SI-AGET ATRP of MPC and high-grafting density were essential for producing polymer particle surfaces with significantly effective antifouling properties. This approach enables the facile fabrication of antifouling polymer particles for highly sensitive diagnostic methods and precise bioseparation.

Commercial ureteral stents frequently encounter clinical issues, such as mucosal injury due to friction, bacterial colonization resulting in infections, and mineral encrustation compromising long-term use. To effectively address these challenges, we developed a bridge-like copolymer coating, namely, P(DMA-bMPC-bDMA) (PDMD), which was synthesized via reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer polymerization. The PDMD architecture strategically positioned dopamine methacrylamide groups at both ends, generating a "molecular clamp" that provided robust dual-end self-adhesion and ensured uniform, stable anchoring to the polyurethane substrate. Compared to conventional single-end adhesive coatings, this "molecular clamp" approach significantly enhanced the integrity and durability under dynamic physiological conditions. In addition, the bridge-like structure also optimally introduced the central segment of 2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine, forming a highly effective hydration layer that dramatically reduced friction by 92% (coefficient of friction ∼ 0.032) and acted as a physical barrier to inhibit bacterial adhesion. Consequently, the PDMD-modified polyurethane samples inhibited the adhesion of common uropathogens such as Escherichia coli (>98.8%), Staphylococcus aureus (>92.2%), and Proteus mirabilis (>98.5%) and effectively prevented the formation of encrustation in dynamic in vitro and in vivo urinary tract infection models. Overall, this multifunctional surface treatment combining dual-end self-adhesion stability with both superlubrication and antifouling performances provides a substantial improvement over previous traditional coatings, enhancing biocompatibility, reducing complications, and markedly improving patient comfort and clinical outcomes for commercial ureteral stents.

Electrochemical biosensors are often compromised by nonspecific adsorption in complex biological fluids. Although zwitterionic peptides (ZIPs) demonstrate excellent antifouling properties through the formation of hydration layers, conventional linear ZIPs face a severe limitation: unstable hydration under dynamic complex conditions due to a longer dipole moment, local charge, and conformational flexibility. To address these limitations, we designed a novel dendritic zwitterionic oligopeptide with a three-dimensional branched architecture by alternating glutamic acid (E) and lysine (K) residues around a cysteine (C) core [e.g., EK(E)CE(K)K] according to traditional linear ZIPs (CEKEKEK). Comparative experiments revealed that the dendritic ZIPs exhibited significantly enhanced hydrophilicity and antifouling performances over linear CEKEKEK when exposed to human saliva, sweat, and even in blood. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed that the flexible CEKEKEK oligopeptide, with 2 intramolecular hydrogen bonds between hydrophilic groups distributed at termini of the polypeptide, exposing the peptide bond at the middle part, undergoes local charge and an uneven and unstable hydrated layer. However, the dendritic EK(E)CE(K)K oligopeptides formed 8 intramolecular hydrogen bonds, lowering the dipole moment between -COOH and -NH2 groups with maintaining high conformational stability, which helps form a stronger hydration layer under physiological conditions than the linear CEKEKEK. Leveraging this design, we successfully developed an antifouling electrochemical biosensor based on this dendritic ZIPs as example for detecting C-reactive protein in saliva, achieving detection accuracy consistent with the ELISA method. The dendritic design provides a strategy for enhancing the contamination resistance ability and offers a significant advancement for next-generation biosensors in complex biological environments.

Abstract Engineering hydrogel coating with hierarchical architecture offers a promising pathway to multifunctional surface protection. However, maintaining structural integrity in such a layered structured system remains a critical challenge due to interfacial mechanical mismatches. Such fragile structures will ultimately compromise their surface antifouling and anticorrosion performance. Inspired by the intriguing skin‐toughening behavior of marine sponges, an ion‐orchestrated structural engineering strategy is presented to modulate the surface microstructure of hydrogel coatings, enabling the rapid assembly of a surface‐confined “armor layer” directly from the hydrogel matrix without compromising its overall structural integrity. Molecular force measurements reveal that diffused metal ions coordinate with embedded tannic acid engineered cellulose nanocrystals (TA/CNC), driving their directional migration toward the hydrogel surface and triggering the in situ self‐assembly as a high‐modulus armor layer (over 700 kPa) that locally reinforces the mechanical robustness of the hydrogel coating. Moreover, this surface‐confined hydrophilic armor layer acts as a multifunctional barrier, suppressing over 97% of oil droplets, protein, and biofluid adhesion, and enhancing surface corrosion resistance by reducing corrosion inhibitor leaching by 84.5% through a unique surface pore‐sealing effect. These findings provide a new paradigm for ion‐driven nanoscale reorganization to tailor surface functionality, paving the way for next‐generation, sustainable protective coatings across diverse applications.

Abstract For marine antifouling coatings to be practically useful, resistance to both marine fouling organisms and inorganic marine sediments is essential. Amphiphilic copolymer coatings, which integrate hydrophilic and hydrophobic components, are known to impart such dual antifouling properties to solid substrates. In these systems, the hydrophilic component functions as a physical barrier to inhibit biological fouling, while the hydrophobic component prevents the adsorption of marine sediments. Based on this principle, various amphiphilic copolymers have been developed for marine antifouling applications. To effectively minimize both biological adhesion and sediment accumulation, in addition to selecting appropriate hydrophilic and hydrophobic monomers, optimizing their relative composition is crucial. In this study, amphiphilic copolymer coatings composed of sulfobetaine methacrylate (SBMA) and isobornyl methacrylate (IBMA) are synthesized via surface‐initiated atom transfer radical polymerization. Through a systematic investigation, the optimal SBMA‐to‐IBMA ratio is determined to achieve a balanced antifouling performance. Notably, coatings prepared with an SBMA:IBMA feed molar ratio of 1:1 effectively suppress both marine diatom adhesion and sediment adsorption. Surface free energy analysis reveals that superior antifouling performance correlates with a lower surface free energy. These findings underscore the design parameters that should be considered in the development of high‐performance amphiphilic copolymer coatings for marine antifouling applications.

High optical transmittance can endow solar panels with sufficient light energy intake, while anti-fouling and anti-icing properties ensure stable power generation in environments where dust, bird droppings, algae, and ice are prone to accumulate. A highly transparent and ultra-slippery surface is promising for meeting these requirements. However, it remains a huge challenge to achieve superior transmittance, anti-fouling, anti-icing, and durability on the same surface to ensure high energy conversion efficiency for solar panels. Herein, a bioinspired cellulose-based ultra-slippery film (BCUSF) with an extremely low water sliding angle (SA = 0.4°) and high transmittance (≈95% of bake glass) is reported. Benefiting from the impressive slippery property, remarkably low ice adhesion strength (0.38kPa), and superior self-cleaning and anti-fouling performances are also demonstrated. Moreover, the BCUSF exhibits excellent durability and robustness, maintaining a SA of 0.8° after suffering high shear at 9000 r min-1. Accordingly, the BCUSF with highly comprehensive performance enables solar panels to maintain high energy-conversion efficiency after repeated accumulation/cleaning of ice (ice adhesion strength = 0.91kPa after 25 tests) and dust, or sand impact. It is envisioned that the BCUSF can boost the practical applications of slippery films on solar panels.