Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gas Emissions Research Articles

Simulating the impact of a carbon tax on food in four European countries

Abstract Since agriculture is responsible for a considerable share of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE), this paper examines the impact of various carbon taxes designed to incentivize environmentally friendly food consumption patterns in four European countries: Finland, Italy, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. As the proposed fiscal policies are likely to affect food consumption patterns, the study also assesses the consequent changes in diet quality and welfare. The results from this analysis reveal considerable variations in the reduction of GHGE across countries and tax schemes. While most taxation schemes have only a modest impact on dietary quality, these effects differ among nations. Additionally, the welfare cost of the compensated scheme is relatively small but not insignificant. These findings raise questions about the efficacy of a common European fiscal policy for climate mitigation compared to a more flexible approach where each member state calibrates the tax according to its unique circumstances.

Carbon footprint of global rice production and consumption

Rice paddies are not only sources of staple food for half of the global population but also account for nearly half of the anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) of croplands. Carbon footprint (CF) is a key tool for identifying and weighting sources of the GHGs along the food supply chain, promoting the efforts to curb these emissions within the targets of the climatic change protocol of the Paris Agreement. We introduced a comprehensive global quantification of rice CF, including direct and indirect emissions and sinks of the GHGs of inputs production, packaging, transportation, and application, soil and plant systems, farm operations, and uses of the produced biomass until the end of life. Globally, the rice CF was 2430 kg CO2eq. Mg−1 grain in 2020, of which 46% and 42% were sourced from the Gate and Grave stages, respectively, after excluding 3265 kg CO2eq. Mg−1 grain, that is the assimilated C in plant biomass. Net GHGs emissions of soil, biomass mulching and burning, and farm operations accounted for 20, 17, and 63%, respectively of the Gate stage CF. Meanwhile, food consumption contributed to the Grave stage CF by 92%. The rice CF ranged between 14 and 4854 kg CO2eq. Mg−1 grain among countries, wherein, for example, the rice CF values in Indonesia, India, Vietnam, and Russia represented 9, 50, 97, and 122% of the global average. Southeast, South, and East Asia were the major contributors (35, 34 and 18%, respectively) to the atmospheric CO2 load (2.4 Pg CO2eq.) of global rice production and consumption. This CO2 load will increase to 3.1 Pg CO2eq. in 2100, driven by a 32% growth in rice consumption. Here, we suggested an optimistic strategy (green energy use, hybridization, improving use efficiency of the inputs, and reducing food losses) to reduce the CO2 load by 60%.

Crisis resilience in medical practices and clinics

Climate change because of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions increasingly triggers extreme weather events. Of all the continents, Europe is warming the fastest. Heat and drought, forest fires and floods will worsen in Europe even in optimistic global warming scenarios, affecting living conditions across the continent. Extreme weather events threaten energy and food security, ecosystems, infrastructure, water resources, financial stability, and people's healthcare. Many of these risks have already reached critical levels and could take on catastrophic proportions without immediate, decisive action. This paper outlines current challenges for medical practices and clinics in the context of climate change and provides examples and guidance for strengthening crisis resilience. Selective literature review on the different requirements for crisis resilience in practices and clinics was performed. Medical practices and clinics achieve crisis resilience by high degrees of adaptability and flexibility. They prepare for climate change-related challenges and are, therefore, able to protect themselves and maintain their function in the healthcare system. Recent weather events in Germany revealed insufficient resilience among the healthcare sector; hence, improvements are necessary. Changing environmental conditions urgently require the healthcare sector to adapt and effectively strengthen crisis resilience in order to ensure that critical infrastructure remains functional and the population has access to healthcare.

Optimal resource reallocation can achieve water conservation, emissions reduction, and improve irrigated agricultural systems

CONTEXTCrop production consumes large volumes of fresh water and is a key contributor to anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Increasing crop output to ensure adequate food supplies under water and land scarcity relies excessively on intensive agricultural inputs (e.g., fertilizers, pesticides, and agricultural films), leading to irreparable environmental consequences (water scarcity and degradation and GHG emissions). Therefore, research on a nexus approach and resource optimization model were carried out. OBJECTIVETo fill the gap of objectives priority and optimal allocation of water resources at irrigation area scale, this study constructed a model to achieve optimal water conservation, GHG emissions reduction, and economic benefit improvement, covering the cumulative environmental burden of agricultural inputs, production processes, trade and consumption related to agricultural activities. METHODSBased on a resource-environmental-economic framework, we took the blue water footprint (WFblue) as a decision variable and developed an integrated water resource optimization model, which was solved by the non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm-II in Matlab. Minimizing crop water footprint (WFcrop), minimizing crop carbon emissions (CEcrop) and maximizing crop economic benefits (EBcrop) were the objectives of the model, and blue water resource, food security, electric energy consumption and land security were the constraint conditions. In addition, three scenarios were tested based on the priority of the objective functions. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSAnnually, WFcrop was 1234.29 × 106 m3 and CEcrop was 522.45 Gg CO2 eq for food production in Lianshui Irrigation District from 2005 to 2019. Grain crops exhibited a greater WFcrop and contributed significantly more to CEcrop than oilseed crops. Virtual water and carbon flows increased with food transfer. By adjusting the WFblue of crops compared to the baseline scenario (BS), the average WFcrop decreased by 10.0 %, CEcrop decreased by 4.0 %, and EBcrop increased by 6.4 % under Scenario 2 (minimizing WFcrop and maximizing EBcrop), respectively. Similarly, there were average reductions of 9.2 % in WFcrop, 6.2 % in CEcrop, and EBcrop increased by 5.6 % under Scenario 3 (minimizing CEcrop and maximizing EBcrop) compared to the BS. Therefore, the integrated model achieved the optimization objectives. SIGNIFICANCEThis research not only broadens the scope of traditional environmental impact assessments in agricultural production, but also underscores the positive impact of scientifically and rationally redistributing resources for water conservation, GHG emissions reduction, and economic benefit improvement.

Extreme weather event causes the death of White-collared Swift Streptoprocne zonaris (Shaw, 1796) (Aves, Apodidae) individuals in sinkholes in the State of Goiás, Brazil

The use of caves and rocky walls is common for some birds, like swifts, to shelter, sleep, nest, feed, and protect themselves from predators, wind, and rain. Several environmental and ecological factors associated with the habits and adaptations of certain species allow birds to use cave environments. The White-collared Swift Streptoprocne zonaris (Shaw, 1796) is distributed from Mexico and the Antilles south to northern Argentina, Paraguay, and southern Brazill, being frequent in areas with waterfalls and river rapids with rocky beds and crystal-clear water. Individuals live in flocks and have the habit of roosting and nesting in damp, dark caves or behind waterfalls. Herein, we aim to report the case and identify the cause of death of S. zonaris individuals found dead in a sinkhole in the State of Goiás, Brazil, in 2020. Global warming resulting from anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases can alter the natural fluctuations of atmospheric circulation systems, responsible for rainfall distribution, substantially affecting rainfall and increasing the frequency of heavy rainfall events in some locations. Due to climate change and the increasing frequency of flooding records, we have raised the hypothesis and drawn attention to our record may have been originated due to these climatic events. However, we do not dismiss the hypothesis that the flooding may be due to an extreme event. The fact that S. zonaris spends the night and nests close to water bodies makes the species more susceptible to the effects of a flash flood. Further studies will be able to show the real effects of global warming on the species.

Electrochemical Plasma-Activated CO2 Reduction at a Plasma-Water Interface

The development of technologies and processes to decarbonize chemical and fuel production is key to reducing global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Electrochemical carbon dioxide reduction enables a sustainable pathway to circularize carbon-based chemical products by upgrading recovered carbon dioxide using renewable energy sources. Electrochemical CO2 reduction has successfully been employed to produce chemicals such as methanol and ethylene, but it has been hindered by dependence on elevated temperature to achieve high yields and limited ability to generate higher order carbon products. Non-thermal carbon dioxide plasma can be generated at ambient temperature and pressure and contains energetically excited oxygen and carbon species. When introduced to an electrocatalyst, these reactive species could more readily participate in reaction pathways with higher activation barriers towards forming higher order carbon species compared to electrochemical reactions involving ground-state reactants. Further, plasma discharges over water in an electrochemical cell generate plasma-activated water, introducing solvated electrons and secondary reactive oxygen species.In this work, we investigate how the use of plasma-activated carbon dioxide and a plasma-water interface impacts electrochemical product generation. We design a novel non-thermal plasma electrode to discharge carbon dioxide plasma into water in an electrochemical cell with a Cu nanoparticle electrocatalyst. Results suggest the potential for a plasma-water electrochemical system to generate value-added products that are less commonly generated in electrochemical processes at ambient pressure and temperature.

Building Electrochemical Roadmaps for Decarbonization in the Specialty Chemical Sector

Greenhouse gas emissions from the chemical manufacturing industry are enormous, by some estimates they amount to 5% percent of the global total.1,2 Moreover, chemical manufacturing is widely considered as a “difficult-to-decarbonize” sector due to the deeply entrenched reliance on crude-based hydrocarbons as fuels and feedstocks.3 The ultimate goal of eliminating anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, clearly demands a wholesale reconsideration of energy and material flows in chemical manufacturing.One area of research that has gained momentum in the past decade is the use of electrochemistry to perform organic redox reactions. These types of electrosynthetic transformations provide a straightforward means to electrify chemical manufacturing, thereby decreasing the global warming impact as the carbon intensity of grid electricity diminishes with continued adoption of low-carbon power sources. Further improvements are achievable through decarbonization of material inputs, e.g., by replacing problematic redox reagents like methane-derived hydrogen or fuming nitric acid with reactive hydrogen and oxygen intermediates generated at electrodes via water electrolysis.Despite these promising advances, interest in organic electrosynthesis to date has mainly focused on the production of commodity chemicals (e.g., CO2 reuse, ammonia electrosynthesis) at the expense of specialty chemical synthesis. This focus is well justified based on the possible impact of major breakthroughs on global emissions, but it constitutes missed opportunities to drive broad adoption of electrosynthesis across the chemical industry. To address this knowledge gap, our lab has undertaken a collaborative research effort with a global specialty chemical manufacturer to explore opportunities to decarbonize through electrification strategies involving electrosynthetic reaction schemes.This presentation will detail our recent work on a holistic “scoping study” to estimate the potential for reducing the global warming emissions profiles for a representative set of specialty chemicals through the adoption of electrosynthetic methods. First, we mapped the supply chain for 12 specific chemicals (chosen for their relevance to the specialty industry and significant global warming potential from current production methods) in terms of all reactive processes required to generate these compounds from petrochemical feedstocks. Next, we searched for literature reports detailing electrosynthetic pathways to generate each intermediate species along the manufacturing supply chain. The relevant electrochemical reactions were broadly classifiable as (a) generating alternatives to petrochemical feedstocks; (b) direct replacement of an existing chemical redox reaction with an electrochemical reaction; or (c) intensified approaches that use electrochemistry to reduce the total number of reactive process steps required. Finally, we benchmarked the potential for reduced greenhouse gas emissions for electrosynthetic schemes compared to the incumbent technologies based on a set of simplifying assumptions that involve calculating baseline emissions intensities as a function of the thermodynamic minimum energy input and the carbon intensity of the electric power supply, and further applying generic “efficiency factors” to account for all emissions in excess of this thermodynamic minimum. The results of this analysis suggest remarkable opportunities to develop electrosynthetic schemes for a handful of reactions for which global warming emissions could be reduced even in the most conservative scenarios of low process efficiency and high carbon intensity of the input power.This presentation will also cover the hurdles we have identified in the development of modular and continuously operated electrosynthetic reactors, as well as what we have learned in addressing these challenges.References(1) Saygin, D.; Gielen, D. Zero-Emission Pathway for the Global Chemical and Petrochemical Sector. Energies 2021, 14 (13), 3772. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14133772.(2) Gabrielli, P.; Rosa, L.; Gazzani, M.; Meys, R.; Bardow, A.; Mazzotti, M.; Sansavini, G. Net-Zero Emissions Chemical Industry in a World of Limited Resources. One Earth 2023, 6 (6), 682–704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2023.05.006.(3) Gross, S. The Challenge of Decarbonizing Heavy Industry, 2021. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/FP_20210623_industrial_gross_v2.pdf.

Environmental impact assessment in the Caspian region

Background. The current state and pressures associated with the anthropogenic impact on the Caspian region environment are examined. Surrounded by five coastal countries, including the Republic of Azerbaijan, the Russian Federation, the Republic of Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Caspian Sea is the world’s largest endorheic water body. The isolation of the Caspian Sea, which is characterized by special climatic conditions and salinity gradients, has led to the formation of a unique ecosystem.Aim. Environmental impact assessment of the Caspian region and the associated anthropogenetic load.Materials and methods. The anthropogenic processes affecting the environment of the Caspian Sea and the surrounding area were assessed using the DPSIR concept. This concept includes the components of driving forces, pressures, state, impacts, and response in order to inclusively determine the connections between human activities and the environment. This concept was used as by the European Environmental Agency as the basis for integrated environmental analysis.Results. The conducted study determined the scale and geography of greenhouse gas degassing, the volume of pollutant emissions into the atmosphere by components, the structure of greenhouse gas emissions, and the dynamics of emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrogen oxide generated from stationary sources in the Caspian region. Anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases that pollute the atmosphere and sea waters, generated from stationary sources, are formed as a result of the production activities of a number of industries: mining; electricity, gas, and steam generation; air conditioning; manufacturing; water supply; wastewater treatment; construction industry; agriculture and forestry; transport storage and communications; repair of vehicles and motorcycles; as well as other activities.Conclusion. The share of enterprises in the fuel and energy complex that emit greenhouse gases is about 60%. The structure of greenhouse gas emissions and the dynamics of CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions generated from stationary sources in the Caspian region are shown. The Caspian Sea is one of the most important endorheic basins in the world. Being surrounded by land on all sides, the Caspian Sea lacks flows that would maintain its self-purification. Pollutants that enter the Sea remain there due to the lack of mechanisms for their removal. Complete information about the level of pollutant inputs is crucial for selecting the most effective means of environmental compensation or pollution reduction. The largest polluting sectors are agriculture, industry, including oil and gas, and urbanization.

We need targeted policy interventions in the EU to save soil carbon

Globally, annual emissions from managed organic soils accounts for up to 5% of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Climate-wise management and restoration of degraded organic soils could reduce GHG emissions quickly and at relatively low costs. The European Union (EU) Member States that have large areas of organic soils with high GHG emissions are Sweden, Finland, Germany, Ireland, Poland, Netherlands, and the Baltic countries. To meet the climate targets and objectives of the Paris Agreement the land-use sector is indispensable and mitigation policies targeting organic soils will be needed. The international regulatory framework is broad and quite unspecific. In contrast, the European Union has initiated binding regulation for the land-use sector through the EU Climate Law, the EU LULUCF regulation, and the proposed EU Nature Restoration Law. However, even this regulatory approach is not on track to deliver on its binding ambitions, indicating the need for more effective implementation measures also on organic soils in the EU and its member states. Furthermore, we argue that appropriate policy selection should consider current knowledge regarding the climate impacts of management options of organic soils. Lastly, we need more studies on GHG emissions, and standardized methods for GHG inventories, to resolve uncertainties surrounding the impacts of management to GHG emissions. Successful policy implementation requires more efforts but also improved scientific justification through continuous consideration of climate policy integrity and strengthening of the reliability of GHG inventories.

Rainfall projections under different climate scenarios over the Kaduna River Basin, Nigeria

This research aimed to assess changes in mean and extreme rainfall within the Kaduna River Basin (KRB), specifically examining the implications of two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs)—4.5 and 8.5 scenarios. Employing a quantile mapping technique, this study corrected inherent biases in four Regional Climate Models, enabling the examination of mean precipitation and six indices capturing extreme precipitation events for the 2050s. These findings were compared against a historical reference period spanning from 1981 to 2010, considering the basin's upstream and downstream segments. Results revealed an average annual rainfall reduction under scenarios 4.5 (21.39%) and 8.5 (20.51%) across the basin. This decline exhibited a more pronounced impact on monthly rainfall during the wet season (April to October) compared to the dry season (November to March). Notably, a substantial decrement in wet indices, excluding consecutive wet days (CWD), was foreseen in both seasons for the upstream and downstream areas, signalling an impending drier climate. The anticipated rise in consecutive dry days (CDD) is poised to manifest prominently downstream attributed to global warming-induced climate change brought on by increased anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases. These findings accentuate a heterogeneous distribution of extreme rainfall, potentially leading to water scarcity issues throughout the KRB, especially impacting upstream users. Moreover, the projections hint at an increased risk of flash floods during intense wet periods. Consequently, this study advocates the implementation of targeted disaster risk management strategies within the KRB to address these foreseeable challenges.

A desiccating saline lake bed is a significant source of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions

A desiccating saline lake bed is a significant source of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions

Global net climate effects of anthropogenic reactive nitrogen

Anthropogenic activities have substantially enhanced the loadings of reactive nitrogen (Nr) in the Earth system since pre-industrial times1,2, contributing to widespread eutrophication and air pollution3–6. Increased Nr can also influence global climate through a variety of effects on atmospheric and land processes but the cumulative net climate effect is yet to be unravelled. Here we show that anthropogenic Nr causes a net negative direct radiative forcing of −0.34 [−0.20, −0.50] W m−2 in the year 2019 relative to the year 1850. This net cooling effect is the result of increased aerosol loading, reduced methane lifetime and increased terrestrial carbon sequestration associated with increases in anthropogenic Nr, which are not offset by the warming effects of enhanced atmospheric nitrous oxide and ozone. Future predictions using three representative scenarios show that this cooling effect may be weakened primarily as a result of reduced aerosol loading and increased lifetime of methane, whereas in particular N2O-induced warming will probably continue to increase under all scenarios. Our results indicate that future reductions in anthropogenic Nr to achieve environmental protection goals need to be accompanied by enhanced efforts to reduce anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to achieve climate change mitigation in line with the Paris Agreement.

Climate impacts of alternative beef production systems depend on the functional unit used: Weight or monetary value

Beef production has been identified as a significant source of anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the agricultural sector. United States and Canada account for about a quarter of the world's beef supply. To compare the GHG emission contributions of alternative beef production systems, we conducted a meta-analysis of 32 studies that were conducted between 2001 and 2023. Results indicated that GHG emissions from beef production in North America varied almost fourfold from 10.2 to 37.6 with an average of 21.4 kg CO2e/kg carcass weight (CW). Studies that considered soil C sequestration (C-seq) reported the highest mitigation potential in GHG emissions (80%), followed by growth enhancement technology (16%), diet modification (6%), and grazing management improvement (7%). Our study highlights the implications of using carbon intensity per economic activity (i.e., GHG emissions per monetary unit), compared to the more common metric of intensity on per weight of product basis (GHG emissions per kg CW) for comparisons across differentiated beef cattle products. While a positive association was found between the proportion of lifespan on grassland and the conventional weight-based indicator, grass-finished beef was found to have lower carbon intensity per economic activity than feedlot-finished beef. Our study emphasizes the need to incorporate land use and management effects and soil C-seq as fundamental aspects of beef GHG emissions and mitigation assessments.

Towards a standardized circular economy

The purpose of this article is to outline the future development of the circular economy (CE) concept, which is moving towards a standardized model, although it does not yet have a standardized definition. EC has been developing very dynamically over the past 10–15 years around the world: for example, the process of creating a new multilateral environmental agreement to completely stop the use of disposable plastic products, the development of indicators and tools for implementing the concept, and the introduction of a number of new laws are taking place. Research methodology: an analysis of the process of standardization of a low-carbon economy through the integration of environmental parameters into the socio-economic system (anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and their absorption) is carried out from the point of view of reporting by companies. Results of the study: firstly, the key types of reporting by companies on the low-carbon economy and the typology of standards used have been identified. Secondly, existing types of reporting and standards related to the EC model are identified, and possible ways to make the transition to full EC standardization are explored. Originality and contribution of the author: for the first time in Russia, the work presents a comparative analysis between EC and the low-carbon economy, taking into account such parameters as the volumes and dynamics of these markets, the role, structure and prospects for the development of the EPC standardization process.

Gendered Gaps in the Adoption of Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa and How to Overcome Them

In Africa, the agricultural sector contributes approximately 10–20% of the total anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. It presents rapid growth as a result of rising food demand in Africa, which is being driven by population growth. Consequently, climate change can negatively affect crop yields and livestock production, thus threatening food security. This review highlights the existing gender gaps in African agriculture and discusses the drivers and barriers that maintain gender gaps in climate-smart agriculture (CSA) adoption in African countries. Moreover, the review offers a comprehensive roadmap for the essential measures required to facilitate the widespread uptake of CSA practices among female farmers. Several CSA practices were reported, such as agricultural practices, forest and cropland regeneration practices, water resources, and the use of weather and climate information services. The gender gap in the adoption of CSA practices was influenced by policy legislation, financial resources, social and cultural taboos, and technical determinants such as climate information access. To address this gender gap, scientific-outcome-based research should be used to address gender gaps among female small farmers. In conclusion, to overcome the gender gap in CSA adoption in Africa, this review recommends the use of a gender-responsive approach, the development of scientific research-driven measures, and the prioritization of gender equality in governments’ agendas in the context of climate change uncertainty.

Assessing the climate effects of clinker production: A statistical analysis to reduce its environmental impacts

Building materials and components account for about 10% of the world's anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Carbonate decomposition and fuel combustion from the cement production process are responsible for almost 7% of carbon dioxide emissions. Since clinker is the most impacting component of ordinary Portland cement, this paper presents a statistical analysis of the life cycle impacts of 41 recipes of grey clinker produced in Europe from 2015 to 2023 to identify the consumption impact categories (e.g., fossil fuels, renewable and non-renewable secondary fuels) which better explain the assessment of the Global Warming Potential (GWP), typically exploited to quantify the environmental impact of clinker production. More in detail, several regression methods are applied to the available dataset to build predictive models for GWP and to determine the most relevant impact categories. The regression models are then compared with respect to their statistical accuracy and goodness of fit. The results provide information that can support cement producers in developing low-impacting cement recipes.

Effects of direct and indirect electrification on transport energy demand during the energy transition

The global transport sector is one of the main sources of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions representing one quarter of all energy related greenhouse gas emissions. Defossilisation of the transport is an important part of the transition towards a carbon-neutral energy system. Fast development of electric mobility technologies, fast growth of renewable electricity generation and emerging power-to-fuels sector provide the means for such a transition. The transition simulation presented in this study focuses on the transport sector using an energy system model in hourly resolution and the transition reaches 100% renewable energy supply by 2050. Results show that massive electrification emerges as the main path for the transport sector, while in some segments, where direct electrification is not possible, demand is satisfied with renewable electricity-based fuels. In every region of the world, the existing renewable energy potential is more than sufficient to satisfy the transport sector demand even with fast growth. The transition leads to significant improvement in energy efficiency both on the demand side, due to more efficient engines and electric motors, and the supply side, with the switch to renewable electricity supply. Solar photovoltaics evolve to become the main source of energy for the transport sector by mid-century.

Geothermo‐mechanical alterations due to heat energy extraction in enhanced geothermal systems: Overview and prospective directions

AbstractGeothermal energy from deep underground (or geological) formations, with or without its combination with carbon capture and storage (CCS), can be a key technology to mitigate anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and meet the 2050 net‐zero carbon emission target. Geothermal resources in low‐permeability and medium‐ and high‐temperature reservoirs in sedimentary sequence require hydraulic stimulation for enhanced geothermal systems (EGS). However, fluid migration for geothermal energy in EGS or with potential CO2 storage in a CO2‐EGS are both dependent on the in situ flow pathway network created by induced fluid injection. These thermo‐mechanical interactions can be complex and induce varying alterations in the mechanical response when the working fluid is water (in EGS) or supercritical CO2 (in CO2‐EGS), which could impact the geothermal energy recovery from geological formations. Therefore, there is a need for a deeper understanding of the heat extraction process in EGS and CO2‐EGS. This study presents a systematic review of the effects of changes in mechanical properties and behavior of deep underground rocks on the induced flow pathway and heat recovery in EGS reservoirs with or without CO2 storage in CO2‐EGS. Further, we proposed waterless‐stimulated EGS as an alternative approach to improve heat energy extraction in EGS. Lastly, based on the results of our literature review and proposed ideas, we recommend promising areas of investigation that may provide more insights into understanding geothermo‐mechanics to further stimulate new research studies and accelerate the development of geothermal energy as a viable clean energy technology.

The impact of refrigeration on food losses and associated greenhouse gas emissions throughout the supply chain

One-third of food produced globally is wasted while approximately 800 million people suffer from hunger. Meanwhile, food losses produce approximately 8% of total anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This study develops a food loss estimation tool to assess how improved access to the cold chain could impact food loss and its associated GHG emissions for seven food types in seven regions. This study estimates that poor cold chain infrastructure could be responsible for up to 620 million metric tons (Mmt) of food loss, responsible for 1.8 GtCO2-eq annually. Utilizing fully optimized cold chains could save over 100 Mmt of fruit and vegetable loss in South & Southeast Asia and over 700 Mmt CO2-eq in Sub-Saharan Africa. Developing more localized, less industrialized (‘farm-to-table’) food supply chains in both industrialized and non-industrialized contexts may save greater quantities of food than optimized cold chains. Utilizing localized supply chains could save over 250 Mmt of roots and tubers globally (over 100 Mmt more savings than those of an optimized cold chain) and reduce GHG emissions from meat losses in industrialized regions by over 300 Mmt CO2-eq. Due to the differences in the environmental intensity of food types, cold chain investments that prioritize reducing overall food losses will have very different outcomes than those that prioritize reducing GHG emissions.

Balancing economic and environmental goals: A novel strategy for growing items acquisition in livestock farming under an incremental discount and a power demand pattern

The human food supply chain is significantly influenced by growing items (GIs) like beef, sheep, hog, chicken, turkey, and other species, as these provide major contributions to food security worldwide. Industrial farming businesses carry out their operations by purchasing a certain species of baby GIs from a supplier, feeding and caring for them until they reach an acceptable living weight, and then selling them after they have been slaughtered and processed. In addition, the production of livestock worldwide accounts for 14.5% of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), making it a substantial contributor to GHG emissions. Thereby, to regulate emissions, governments from several countries have imposed a tax scheme on the farm’s emission volume. Due to the discrete nature of purchase numbers, using a differentiation-based optimization approach is not appropriate for determining the optimal GI procurement for an industrial farm, making the decision significantly more challenging. The primary goal of this study is to identify the optimal number of GIs for a farm to enhance financial and environmental performance when the cost per weight unit of procurement depends on the volume of purchases and the consumption of processed commodities follows a power demand pattern. A comparison tactic is employed only for the discrete decision variable, while the classical optimization tactic, based on differentiation, is adopted for the remaining continuous decision variable of the derived problem. Our method, which is quite straightforward in its operation, enables the creation of a rule to distinguish between instances in which there is only one optimum solution and those in which there are two. The results from the execution of the novel solution technique reveal that the farm reduces the overall cost of the order while keeping the integrality of the purchased GIs by taking into account the regulation for carbon emissions, the discount, and the power demand pattern.