Anode Electrolyte Research Articles

Advances in electrolyte–anode interface engineering of solid‐state lithium metal batteries

AbstractSolid‐state lithium metal batteries are considered to be the next generation of energy storage systems due to the high energy density brought by the use of metal lithium anode and the safety features brought by the use of solid electrolytes (SEs). Unfortunately, besides the safety features, using SEs brings issues of interfacial contact of lithium anode and electrolytes. Recently, to realize the application of solid‐state lithium metal batteries, significant achievements have been made in the interface engineering of solid‐state batteries, and various new strategies have been proposed. In this review, from the interface failure perspective of solid‐state lithium metal batteries, we summarize failure mechanisms in terms of poor physical contact, weak chemical/electrochemical stability, continuing contact degradation, and uncontrollable lithium deposition. We then focused on the latest strategies for solving interface issues, including advancing in improving the physical solid–solid contact, increasing the electrochemical/chemical stability, restraining continuing contact degradation, and controlling homogeneous lithium deposition. The ultimate and paramount future developing directions of solid‐state lithium metal battery interface engineering are proposed.

Stability and performance of lithium metal batteries using silicon and silver alloyed separator surfaces

Lithium metal is renowned for its exceptional theoretical capacity and the lowest electrochemical potential, making it a cornerstone for batteries that can push the boundaries of energy and power density. However, its widespread adoption has been hindered by significant drawbacks, such as an unstable solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer, substantial volume changes during charge-discharge cycles, and the formation of lithium dendrites. In our study, we have addressed these challenges by employing an innovative alloying technique to modify the surface of the separator with silicon (Si) and silver (Ag). This approach facilitates the formation of LiSi and LiAg alloys on the separator surface, leading to the creation of a novel lithium metal-lithium alloy composite anode. Our electrochemical tests have demonstrated that batteries equipped with this surface-modified lithium alloy composite anode exhibit superior coulombic efficiency and an impressively extended cycle life. Furthermore, when utilizing an ether-based electrolyte, the LiAg and LiSi alloy composite anodes have shown remarkable capacity retention rates of 89.1 % and 86.3 %, respectively, after 200 cycles in full cell tests. These results are notably superior to those of anodes made with bare lithium metal. In conclusion, the development of the face-to-face lithium alloy composite anode holds great promise for the practical application of lithium batteries with enhanced stability and performance. This advancement is a significant step towards realizing the full potential of lithium metal batteries in a variety of applications.

Quasi-solid-state silicon-air batteries with high capacities and wide-temperature adaptabilities

Silicon-air batteries (SABs) have emerged as significant energy conversion devices due to its high theoretical energy density and favorable energy-to-cost ratios. However, their application is limited by low anode utilization, electrolyte leakage and aqueous configuration. According, herein, a PAAK-M-ionic liquid (IL) hydrogel (PAAK-M-IL) has been developed using a hygroscopic IL, 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (EMImCl), as an additive for the twin-chain PAAK-M. This PAAK-M-IL demonstrates a high conductivity of 332 mS cm-1 and a significant water uptake of 1486 % at room temperature. Quasi-solid-state silicon-air batteries (QSSSABs) constructed based on the PAAK-M-IL exhibit a remarkable specific capacity of 184.47 Ah kg-1, achieving a lifespan of nearly 121 h. Crucially, the QSSSABs exhibit excellent stability and practicality across a wide temperature range (-10 °C to 60 °C) and under harsh conditions, such as water immersion, rinsing, and liquid nitrogen soaking. A QSSSAB is capable of powering a digital clock/a music player in extreme weather and adverse environments. This research marks a groundbreaking achievement in the development of high-performance, practical, and adaptable QSSSABs, effectively addressing the challenges of SABs application in practical scenarios and providing a robust technical foundation for their future advancement.

Tantalum oxide nanotube thin films: fabrication, optical properties, and porosity analysis

Tantalum oxide (Ta2O5) nanotubes exhibit remarkable properties and have garnered significant attention across diverse scientific disciplines and technological domains. This research article elucidates the successful preparation of amorphous, well-ordered Ta2O5 nanotubes through anodization in electrolytes incorporating hydrofluoric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid. The study comprehensively investigates the preparation methodology on the morphology of the nanotubes, elucidating their optical properties. Furthermore, the effective refractive index and porosity of the Ta2O5 nanotubes were quantitatively determined, offering valuable insights for the advanced utilization of Ta2O5 in several applications, encompassing battery electrode materials, memory resistors, and sensors.

Transforming Zinc‐Ion Batteries with DTPA‐Na: A Synergistic SEI and CEI Engineering Approach for Exceptional Cycling Stability and Self‐Discharge Inhibition

Aqueous zinc‐ion batteries (ZIBs) hold immense promise for large‐scale energy storage, but their practical application is hindered by zinc anode limitations. We introduce diethylenetriamine pentaacetate sodium salt (DTPA‐Na) as a novel electrolyte additive to address these challenges. DTPA‐Na's unique dual functionality enables the formation of robust, multi‐layered solid electrolyte interphases (SEI) on the zinc anode and stable cathode electrolyte interphases (CEI) on the MnOOH cathode. This synergistic SEI/CEI engineering approach effectively suppresses interfacial side reactions, promotes uniform zinc deposition, and inhibits dendrite growth, leading to exceptional cycling stability and self‐discharge inhibition. Asymmetrical cells employing DTPA‐Na achieve an unprecedented 32,000 cycles at a high charging rate of 50 mA/cm2, while symmetric cells demonstrate a lifespan of 160 hours with 95% zinc utilization. Full Zn||MnOOH cells exhibit remarkable stability, maintaining 98.61% capacity retention after 720 hours of self‐discharge and negligible capacity decay over 5000 cycles. Our work highlights the transformative potential of DTPA‐Na as a dual‐functional electrolyte additive, paving the way for high‐performance ZIBs for practical energy storage applications.

Electro-synthesis of valuable products by coupling energy-saving anodic alcohol oxidation reaction with cathodic CO2 reduction reaction

Electrocatalytic carbon dioxide reduction reaction (CO2RR) offers a promising pathway towards achieving carbon neutrality. However, its efficiency is hindered by the sluggish oxygen evolution reaction (OER) at the anode, which consumes a significant portion of the energy input. Herein, we report an effective strategy to replace OER with energy efficient alcohol oxidation reactions to produce value-added products at both cathode and anode of the electrolyzer. In an integrated cell, CO2RR is carried out at cathode using tin oxide deposited on porous copper (SnOx@pCu@CF) as an electrocatalyst while alcohol oxidation reactions (methanol, ethanol, benzyl alcohol) are conducted on porous copper (pCu@CF) anode in alkaline electrolyte. Over 89% selectivity for the cathodic reduction of CO2 into formate and almost 100% selectivity for anodic oxidation of methanol to formate, ethanol to acetate and benzyl alcohol to benzoate are achieved at high current densities within a wide potential range. The SnOx@pCu@CF//pCu@CF two-electrode arrangement required 100 mV less potential for the overall methanol-assisted CO2RR as compared to water oxidation assisted CO2RR with simultaneous production of valuable formate at both anode and cathode This study underscores the potential of coupling CO2RR with viable alternative oxidation reactions as a theoretically and technically feasible approach as well as holds significant promise for delivering substantial economic benefits.

Recent Progress in Aqueous Zinc-ion Batteries at High Zinc Utilization.

Aqueous zinc ion batteries (AZIBs) are promising candidates for next-generation energy storage systems due to their low cost, high safety, and environmental friendliness. As the critical component, Zn metal with high theoretical capacity (5855 mAh cm-3), low redox potential (-0.763 V vs standard hydrogen electrode), and low cost has been widely applied in AZIBs. However, the low Zn utilization rate (ZUR) of Zn metal anode caused by the dendrite growth, hydrogen evolution, corrosion, and passivation require excess Zn installation in current AZIBs, thus leading to increased unnecessary battery weight and decreased energy density. Herein, approaches to the historical progress toward high ZUR AZIBs through the perspective of electrolyte optimization, anode protection, and substrate construction are comprehensively summarized, and an in-depth understanding of ZUR is highlighted. Specifically, the main challenges and failure mechanisms of Zn anode are analyzed. Then, the persisting issues and promising solutions in the reaction interface, aqueous electrolyte, and Zn anode are emphasized. Finally, the design of 100% ZUR AZIBs free of Zn metal is presented in detail. This review aims to provide a better understanding and fundamental guidelines on the high ZUR AZIBs design, which can shed light on research directions for realizing high energy density AZIBs.

A Stable High-Performance Zn-Ion Batteries Enabled by Highly Compatible Polar Co-Solvent.

Uncontrollable growth of Zn dendrites, irreversible dissolution of cathode material and solidification of aqueous electrolyte at low temperatures severely restrict the development of aqueous Zn-ion batteries. In this work, 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol (TFEA) with a volume fraction of 50% as a highly compatible polar-solvent is introduced to 1.3M Zn(CF3SO3)2 aqueous electrolyte, achieving stable high-performance Zn-ion batteries. Massive theoretical calculations and characterization analysis demonstrate that TFEA weakens the tip effect of Zn anode and restrains the growth of Zn dendrites due to electrostatic adsorption and coordinate with H2O to disrupt the hydrogen bonding network in water. Furthermore, TFEA increases the wettability of the cathode and alleviates the dissolution of V2O5, thus improving the capacity of the full battery. Based on those positive effects of TFEA on Zn anode, V2O5 cathode, and aqueous electrolyte, the Zn//Zn symmetric cell delivers a long cycle-life of 782h at 5mAcm-2 and 2mAhcm-2. The full battery still declares an initial capacity of 116.78mAhg-1, and persists 87.73% capacity in 2000 cycles at -25 °C. This work presents an effective strategy for fully compatible co-solvent to promote the stability of Zn anode, V2O5 cathode and aqueous electrolyte for high-performance Zn-ion batteries.

Super Hydrous Solvated Structure of Chaotropic Ca2+ Contributes Superior Anti‐Freezing Aqueous Electrolytes and Stabilizes the Zn anode

AbstractThe further development of aqueous zinc (Zn)‐ion batteries (AZIBs) is constrained by the high freezing points and the instability on Zn anodes. Current improvement strategies mainly focus on regulating hydrogen bond (HB) donors (H) of solvent water to disrupt HBs, while neglecting the environment of HB‐acceptors (O). Herein, we propose a mechanism of chaotropic cation‐regulated HB‐acceptor via a “super hydrous solvated” structure. Chaotropic Ca2+ can form a solvated structure via competitively binding O atoms in H2O, effectively breaking the HBs among H2O molecules, thereby reducing the glass transition temperature of hybrid 1 mol L−1 (M) ZnCl2+4 M CaCl2 electrolyte (−113.2 °C). Meanwhile, the high hydratability of Ca2+ contributes to the water‐poor solvated structure of Zn2+, suppressing side reactions and uneven Zn deposition. Benefiting from the anti‐freezing electrolyte and high reversible Zn anode, the Zn||Pyrene‐4,5,9,10‐tetraone (PTO) batteries deliver an ultrahigh capacity of 183.9 mAh g−1 at 1.0 A g−1 over 1600‐time stable cycling at −60 °C. This work presents a cheap and efficient aqueous electrolyte to simultaneously improve low‐temperature performances and Zn stability, broadening the design concepts for antifreeze electrolytes.

Super Hydrous Solvated Structure of Chaotropic Ca2+ Contributes Superior Anti-Freezing Aqueous Electrolytes and Stabilizes the Zn anode.

The further development of aqueous zinc (Zn)-ion batteries (AZIBs) is constrained by the high freezing points and the instability on Zn anodes. Current improvement strategies mainly focus on regulating hydrogen bond (HB) donors (H) of solvent water to disrupt HBs, while neglecting the environment of HB-acceptors (O). Herein, we propose a mechanism of chaotropic cation-regulated HB-acceptor via a "super hydrous solvated" structure. Chaotropic Ca2+ can form a solvated structure via competitively binding O atoms in H2O, effectively breaking the HBs among H2O molecules, thereby reducing the glass transition temperature of hybrid 1 mol L-1 (M) ZnCl2+4 M CaCl2 electrolyte (-113.2 °C). Meanwhile, the high hydratability of Ca2+ contributes to the water-poor solvated structure of Zn2+, suppressing side reactions and uneven Zn deposition. Benefiting from the anti-freezing electrolyte and high reversible Zn anode, the Zn||Pyrene-4,5,9,10-tetraone (PTO) batteries deliver an ultrahigh capacity of 183.9 mAh g-1 at 1.0 A g-1 over 1600-time stable cycling at -60 °C. This work presents a cheap and efficient aqueous electrolyte to simultaneously improve low-temperature performances and Zn stability, broadening the design concepts for antifreeze electrolytes.

Boosting the Performance of Aluminum-Air Batteries by Interface Modification.

The large-scale application of aqueous Al-air batteries is highly restricted by the performance of Al anodes. The severe self-corrosion and hydrogen evolution of the Al anode in a concentrated alkaline electrolyte are the main reason. Here, aimed at relieving side reactions and enhancing the utilization of metal Al, we propose a hybrid electrolyte additive of 2-mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) and ZnO to form a protective film at the anode/electrolyte interface and to decrease the hydrogen evolution active site. The strong absorption capability of MBT on the metal surface, along with the reduced Zn-containing layer, enables a compact protective film with high hydrogen evolution potential on the Al surface. With this benefit, the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) inhibition efficiency is up to 83.58%, endowing a superior Al-air battery with an energy density of 2376.71 Wh kgAl-1 under a current density of 25 mA cm-2. The conception of constructing a hybrid protective film on the metal surface not only favors the development of metal-air batteries but also facilitates metal corrosion protection.

Tenfold Enhancement of Wear Resistance by Electrosynthesis of a Nanostructured Self‐Lubricating Al2O3/Sn(S)MoS2 Composite Film on AlSiCu Casting Alloys

Enhancing tribological performance through nanostructure control is crucial for saving energy and improving wear resistance for diverse applications. We introduce a new electrochemical approach that integrates aluminum (Al) anodization, tin alternating current (AC) electrodeposition, and anodic MoS2 electrosynthesis for fabricating nanostructured Al2O3/Sn(S)MoS2 composite films on AlSiCu casting alloys. Our unique process uses Sn‐modified MoS2 deposition to form robust solid lubricant MoS2–SnS electrodeposits within the nanochannels and microsized voids/defects of anodic alumina matrix films on the base materials, resulting in a bilayered Al2O3/SnSMoS2 and MoS2–SnS–Sn composite film. The AC‐deposited Sn enhances conductivity in the anodic alumina matrix film, acts as catalytic nuclei for Sn@SnS@MoS2 core‐shell nanoparticles and a dense top layer, and serves as a reductant for the direct synthesis of hybrid solid lubricant MoS2–SnS from MoS3 by anodic electrolysis of MoS42− ions. The resulting nanocomposite film provides a two‐fold increase in lubricity (friction coefficient (COF) μ = 0.14 ⇒ 0.07) and a ten‐fold improvement in wear resistance (COF μ < 0.2) compared to conventional Al2O3/MoS2 film formed by anodizing and reanodizing. The effectiveness of the Al2O3/Sn(S)MoS2 composite is further validated through real automotive engine piston tests.

Built‐In Trimodal Molecular Interaction Effect Enables Interface‐Compatible and Temperature‐Tolerance Aqueous Zinc Batteries

AbstractAqueous zinc‐ion batteries compatible with a wide temperature range and long cycle lifespan show great application prospects but are greatly limited by the unstable electrode‐electrolyte interfaces and mismatched electrolytes. This report presents the pathway of succinamic acid (SA) additive‐induced built‐in trimodal molecular interaction for constructing sustainable aqueous zinc batteries. As confirmed, such trimodal molecular interaction falls into the following patterns: the binding state of the H─F bond between SA and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder, the micellar aggregation state in aqueous electrolyte, and the spontaneous adsorption state at Zn anode–electrolyte interface. Benefiting from the above synergistic effect, the Zn electrode shows a highly reversible deposition/stripping behavior over the wide temperature range (−10–50 °C) when paired with the optimized electrolyte. Specially, an impressive 3530 h‐cycle lifespan of the Zn symmetrical cell is achieved at the conditions of 1 mA cm−2 and 1 mAh cm−2. Beyond that, significantly improved storage capability and cycle performance are demonstrated in both aqueous Zn‐MnO2 and Zn‐I2 batteries. Given the good balance between the working temperature range, ionic conductivity, and Zn2+ transfer number of this trace molecule‐mediated electrolyte, this design paradigm provides new insights into developing advanced aqueous batteries, including but not limited to zinc‐based systems.

Construction of a Composite Sn‐DLC Artificial Protective Layer with Hierarchical Interfacial Coupling Based on Gradient Coating Technology Toward Robust Anodes for Zn Metal Batteries

AbstractDeveloping a robust zinc (Zn) anode, free from Zn dendrites and unwanted side reactions, relies on designing a durable and efficient interfacial protection layer. In this study, gradient coating technology is employed to construct a hierarchically structured composite of Sn with diamond‐like carbon (DLC/Sn‐DLC) as an artificial protective layer. The DLC framework endows DLC/Sn‐DLC layer with high stability and adaptability, achieving long‐term stability of the anode–electrolyte interface. The gradual‐composite Sn, with its Sn─O─C interface chemical bonds, facilitates rapid charge transfer and offers ample zincophilic sites at the base, promoting uniform Zn2+ reduction reaction and deposition. Additionally, the DLC/Sn‐DLC composite exhibits a “lotus effect” and favorable hydrophobic properties, preventing water‐reduced side reactions. Leveraging this structural design and the synergistic cooperation of DLC and Sn, the DLC/Sn‐DLC@Zn electrode demonstrates remarkable Zn plating/stripping reversibility, eliminating Zn dendrites and side reactions. Notably, under a high current density of 10 mA cm−2, the DLC/Sn‐DLC@Zn anode‐based symmetrical cell exhibits stable operation for over 1550 h, with a low nucleation overpotential of 101 mV. The DLC/Sn‐DLC@Zn||Mn3O4‐CNTs full battery delivers a high capacity of 109.8 mAh cm−2 after 5800 cycles at 2 A g−1, and the pouch cell shows potential for energy storage applications.

Dual modulation of electrolyte inner solvent structure and anode interface for high performance alkaline Al-air battery

In this work, we propose a Water-in-salt electrolyte based on concentrated ionic additive for Al-air batteries, aiming at inhibiting the unexpected severe hydrogen evolution self-corrosion. Computing calculations and experimental characterizations consistently confirm that the additive can significantly affect both the solvent structure and anode interface. A stronger H-bonding network is reconfigured and formed in the electrolyte, thus leading to a dramatic decrease in free water content and activity. Besides, the adsorption behavior of used additive molecules on Al anode surface plays an activating and stabilizing role, which is conducive to promoting the uniform dissolution of Al anode and improving the electrochemical performance. Owing to this dual modulation, the electrolyte system endows Al-air battery with extremely low self-corrosion rate (reduced by 89.6%) and remarkable discharge capacity of 2623 mAh/g.

Effects of solid electrolyte particle size and silver-carbon interlayer on lithium deposition in all-solid-state lithium-metal batteries

All-solid-state batteries with lithium-metal anodes are expected to exhibit high performance. For practical application, the growth of lithium dendrites must be suppressed. One method to suppress dendrite growth is to insert a carbon interlayer at the interface between the anode and solid electrolyte (SE). Dendrite growth is related to the anode interface properties and depends on the SE particle size used in the SE layer. Appropriate control of the SE particle size used at the anode interface can improve battery performance. In this study, the effects of SE particle size and carbon interlayer type on lithium-metal deposition morphology are investigated by X-ray CT measurement. The results show that dendrite growth is suppressed when the small-particle SE is used owing to the smaller pores between the SE layer and carbon interlayer. In addition, by controlling the SE particle size distribution using a double SE layer, both high ionic conductivity and dendrite suppression can be achieved. Furthermore, dendrite growth can be suppressed using a silver particle-added carbon interlayer, even with the large-particle SE where dendrites are prone to grow more easily.

Electromigration effect of nano-Fe3O4 in concrete under chloride erosion environment

In order to improve the effectiveness of electro-migration repair technology, researchers have introduced new materials to address the adverse effects of electrochemical repair on concrete, such as interface softening in reinforced concrete. In this study, a dispersed solution of nano-Fe3O4 was selected as the anode electrolyte. Concrete specimens were subjected to electric treatment for repair, and the entry of nano particles into the concrete under the action of an external electric field was investigated. The microstructure and mechanical properties of the repaired concrete material were analyzed using techniques such as potentiodynamic polarization curve, chemical titration, scanning electron microscopy, energy spectrum analysis, mercury intrusion porosimetry, and pull-out test. The results showed that after 15 days of electrochemical nano-repair, the passivation film on the steel reinforcement was repaired, resulting in a 57 % reduction in corrosion rate and prevention of further chloride ingress, thus improving the corrosion resistance of the reinforcement. Furthermore, the electrochemical nano-repair did not affect the outward migration of chloride ions from the concrete, with a chloride removal efficiency as high as 72.6 %. When the treatment duration was 15 days and the current density was 3 A/m2, the bond strength exhibited the greatest improvement, with an increase of 99.15 %. Compared to electrochemical chloride removal, the electrochemical nano-repair reduced the porosity in the middle and inner layers by 17.8 % and 14.8 %, respectively. Microstructural analysis revealed that the electromigrated nano-Fe3O4 particles were uniformly dispersed within the concrete, replacing harmful byproducts and filling the pores.

Origin of Performance Improvements in Lithium‐Ion Cells after Fast Formation

AbstractThe formation process of lithium‐ion batteries commonly uses low current densities, which is time‐consuming and costly. Experimental studies have already shown that slow formation may neither be necessary nor beneficial for cell lifetime and performance. This work combines an experimental formation variation with physicochemical cell and solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) modeling to reveal formation‐induced changes within the cells. Formation at C/2 without full discharge compared to a standard C/10 formation at 20 °C notably improves the discharge and charge capacities at 2C by up to 41 % and 63 %, respectively, while reducing the formation time by over 80 %. Model‐based cell diagnostics reveal that these performance gains are driven by improved transport in the anode electrolyte phase, which is affected by SEI formation, and by enhanced transport on the cathode side. Hence, the focus on the dense SEI layer is insufficient for a comprehensive understanding and, ultimately, optimization of cell formation. All formation procedures were also tested at temperatures of 35 °C and 50 °C. Despite often surpassing the 2C discharge capacity of the standard formation at 20 °C, these cells showed comparable or lower 2C charge capacities. This suggests a pivotal role of local temperature in the formation of large‐format cells.

One step to direct extracted gold and silver from industrial Cu-Ag-Sb-Au alloy by a convenient bimetallic electrolytic separation process

Cu-Ag-Sb-Au alloy produced from lead anode slime reduction smelting through twice vacuum distillation is a high value-added precious metal resource. Currently, using pyrometallurgical process, the antimony and copper elements can be removed respectively by multistage oxidation refining, and then the precious metals are recycled by electrolytic refining. This process has a number of shortcomings such as high energy consumption, high pollution and low direct yield. In this study, a highly efficient new process for extracting precious metals from Cu-Ag-Sb-Au alloy by one-step bimetallic potential-controlled electrolysis is proposed. The electrolytic process of Cu-Ag-Sb alloy is studied by linear scanning voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and the experimental verification is carried out under the guidance of Cu-Ag-Sb alloy experiments. The results show that gold and silver are enriched in the electrolytic anode slime, while copper and antimony are reduced and deposited on the cathode, which realizes the efficient separation of gold and silver from copper and antimony. The direct yield of precious metals and the anode treatment rate are as high as 99.97 % and 16.02 kg/day·A·m2, respectively, but the energy consumption is 453.90 kW·h/t only. This process strongly supports the treatment of Cu-Ag-Sb-Au alloy with low cost and high efficiency. At the same time, in combination with the vacuum distillation process, the oxidation refining is successfully removed from the lead and copper smelting system, thereby achieving efficient recovery and effective reuse of the precious metals.

Anodic Electrolysis Strategy Enabled Fe/FeCl2 Electrode for Scalable Fe/FeCl2-Graphite Molten Salt Battery.

The Fe/FeCl2-Graphite molten salt battery is a promising technology for large-scale energy storage, offering a long lifespan, a low operating temperature (<200 °C), and cost efficiency. However, its practical applications are hindered by the lack of a scalable preparation approach and insufficient redox stability in the Fe/FeCl2 electrode. Our study introduces an electrochemical anodic electrolysis (EAE) strategy, employing the anodic process (Fe → Fe2+) in an Al|AlCl3/NaCl/LiCl|Fe electrolysis system for the Fe/Fe2+ negative electrode in the Fe/FeCl2-Graphite battery. The EAE strategy forms an oxidized film, preventing incipient dissolution in the electrolyte and addressing redox stability issues with FeCl2 as the active substance. The Fe/Fe2+ negative electrode prepared by the EAE strategy exhibits a stabilized capacity of 0.72 mAh/cm2 after 7000 cycles at 5 mA/cm2, with a lower polarization level (∼29 mV) compared to FeCl2 as the active component. The flexibility of the EAE strategy is validated in both galvanostatic and potentiostatic processes, with a discharge capacity of 14 mAh after 1000 cycles, a capacity retention rate of 85%, and a Coulombic efficiency of 98% in the potentiostatic anodic electrolysis Fe/Fe2+ electrode. The scalability and reliability of the EAE strategy are further demonstrated in capacity-expanded Fe/FeCl2-Graphite batteries, reaching a discharge capacity of 155.1 mAh after 1000 cycles at 130 mA, with a capacity retention rate of 94%. For the first time, we showcased an EAE approach capable of producing Fe/Fe2+ electrodes at a rate of about 68.6 m2 per day. Additionally, we successfully assembled an Fe/FeCl2-Graphite battery at about a 0.42 ampere-hour level, paving the way for the scalable application of Fe/FeCl2-Graphite batteries.